LliRARt 

UNIV»SITY  Q 
CALIFORNIA 

BlOLOGfllBRARY 


_.     /7 


LIBRARY 


VEGETATION  TYPE  MAP  HERBARIUM 

CALIFORNIA  FOREST  AND  RANGE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


GIFT  OF 

ALICE  YATES 

IN    MEMORY  OF 

HARRY    STANLEY  YATES 

FIRST   CURATOR   OF   THE   HERBARIUM 

1932  -  1938 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS 

AND 

FOREST  RANGES 


Water  color  by   N.   Brenizer 


LUPINE   (Lupinus) 


Western  Grazing  Grounds 

AND 

Forest  Ranges 

A  HISTORY  OF  THE  LIVE-STOCK 
INDUSTRY  AS  CONDUCTED  ON  THE 
OPEN  RANGES  OF  THE  ARID  WEST, 
WITH  PARTICULAR  REFERENCE  TO 
THE  USE  NOW  BEING  MADE  OF  THE 
RANGES  IN  THE  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

i 
BY 

WILL  C.  BARNES 

INSPECTOR  OF  GRAZING 
U.  S.  FOREST  SERVICE 


CALIFORNIA  FOREST  AND  RANGE 


CHICAGO: 

THE  BREEDER'S  GAZETTE 
1913 


COPYRIGHT.  1913. 

SANDERS  PUBLISHING  CO. 

All  rigrhts  reserved. 


SFS5 


BIOLOGY 
LIBRARY 


TO 

ALBERT  F.  POTTER, 

Associate  Forester  and  Chief  of  Grazing 
United  States  Forest  Service, 

who,  through  his  practical  experience 
on  the  western  ranges,  and  genius  for 
organization,  built  up  from  the  very 
foundation,  without  precedent  or  guide, 
a  system  of  controlled  grazing  on  the 
national  forest  ranges,  that  will  always 
be  a  monument  to  his  ability,  judgment 
and  foresight. 


934 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PREFACE   15-19 

LIST  OF  BOOKS  CONSULTED 20 

CHAPTER  I— THE  EARLY  WESTERN  RANGE. 
Early  events — The  genesis  of  the  trail  herds — The  buf- 
falo— The  stockman's  westward  advance — The  inevita- 
ble happens — The  era  of  re-adjustment — Advent  of  the 
sheepmen — Range  wars — A  sample  attack — Govern- 
ment control  of  grazing  lands — Curtailment  of  the 
open  range — The  new  era ....  21-32 

CHAPTER  II— PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS. 
The  southern  steer  trade — Southern  steers  in  the  north — 
Curtailment  of  northern  movement — Southern  lamb 
trade — Grasses  and  forage  of  the  southern  ranges — 
Alfileria — Semi-desert  range  of  the  south — Higher 
ranges  of  the  southwest — Southwestern  grasses — Black 
grama  grass — Sacaton — The  sages — Prickly  pear — 
Feeding  mistletoe — Mountain  forage — The  northern 
desert  ranges — The  northern  range — Features  of  north- 
ern range — Spring  ranges — Carrying  capacity  of  ranges 
— Horses  the  worst  grazers — Range  for  cattle 33-80 

CHAPTER  III— COMING  OF  THE  SETTLERS. 
Extension  of  holdings — Displacing  stockmen — Early  settle- 
ment in  the  Great  Plains  region — The  settlers'   second 
attack  on  the  arid  region — Success  of  the  settlers — The 
Mormons — Nesters — Dry     farmers     81-90 

CHAPTER  IV— LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  RANGE. 
Live  stock  in  United  States — Live  stock  in  western  states — 
Short-horns  on  the  range — The  advent  of  Herefords — 
Early  horses  of  the  plains — Stockmen's  horses — Mus- 
tangs— Wrong  use  of  names — Sheep  introduced — Early 
shepherding — Impress  of  the  Merino — Securing  mutton 
type — Angoras — Hogs  on  the  ranges  91-113 

CHAPTER  V— HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE. 
Number  of  range  outfits — Past  and  present  range  condi- 
tions— Old  time  equipment — The  bog  rider — Developing 
water — Range  methods — Herds  not  large — Branding  the 
calves — Night  guard  duty — Brand  inspectors — Loading 
for  market — Loss  of  "downers" — Hay-fed  cattle — Rule 

for    measuring    hay    114-139 

7 


8  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

CHAPTER  VI — HANDLING  SHEEP  ON  THE  RANGE. 
Lamb  feeding — Rise  in  price  for  lambs — Advance  in  wool 
prices — Increase  in  cost  of  production — Grazing  leased 
lands — Double  profit  from  sheep — Time  of  shearing — 
Weight  of  fleece — Dipping — Time  of  lambing — Lambing 
grounds — The  herder's  work — Marking — Castrating — 
Docking — Night  herding — Following  the  "drop  band" 
— Lambing  in  tents — A  critical  period — Moving  to 
mountain  pastures — Weight  of  lambs — Shipping  the 
sheep — Size  of  bands — Bedding  down  at  night — Sheep 
in  fenced  pastures 140-160 

CHAPTER  VII — GOATS  ON  THE  RANGE. 
Kids    are    tender — Little    herding    needed — Common    goats 

breed  best — Shearing  and  dipping 161—163 

CHAPTER  VIII— DETERMINING  THE  AGE  OF  STOCK. 
The   mouth   test  for   cattle — Horn   buttons — Rings — Age    of 

horses — Age   of   sheep    164-172 

CHAPTER  IX — RANGE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 
Objections  to  repeated  use  of  bed  grounds — Salting  stock — 
Salt  and  sulphur — Kind  of  salt  to  use — Effect  of  exces- 
sive salt — The  salt  lakes — Making  a  salt  lick — Salt- 
hungry  cattle  raid  camps — Source  of  friction — Experi- 
ments with  salt — Bulls  on  range — Number  of  bulls  to 
cows — Age  of  usefulness — Dehorning  cattle — Dehorning 
the  calves — Value  of  dehorned  cattle — Marking  cattle — 
Ear  and  lip  tattoo — Earmarking — Castrating — Usual 
methods — Keeping  tab  on  sex — Earmarks — Brand  books 
— Brands — Names  of  brands — Changing  brands — Pick- 
ing over  brands  173-198 

CHAPTER  X— COST   OF   RUNNING  STOCK   ON   RANGES. 
Cost  of  grazing  cattle — Cost  with  sheep — Basis  of  estimates 
— Investment    necessary — Other    cost    factors — Cost    of 
raising     sheep — Factors     equalizing     costs — Tables     of 
Tariff  Board   199-207 

CHAPTER  XI — STOCK  ON  RANGES  IN  NATIONAL  FORESTS. 
Timber  the  first  consideration — Liberal  policy  followed — 
Improving  the  ranges — Elimination  of  tramp  stockmen 
— Tramp  sheepmen  in  California — Changing  from  cattle 
to  sheep — Cattle  vs.  sheep — The  permit  system — New 
settlers — The  cash  value  of  permits — Permits  non-sal- 
able and  non-transferable — Permits  for  more  than  one 
year — Drifting  of  stock  onto  forests — Fencing  privi- 
leges— Fees  moderate — Possibility  of  competitive  bids — 
Result  of  competitive  bids — Exchanging  lands — Stock 
losses  less — Policy  of  Government  growing  in  favor.  ..  208-225 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  V 

CHAPTER  XII— THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE. 
Burning   off  a   range — Range   erosion — Over-stocking — Suc- 
cess   in    handling    the    range — Restoring    former    range 
conditions — Reseeding  a  range — Over-grazing  vs.   close 
grazing 226-245 

CHAPTER   XIII — POISONOUS   PLANTS. 

Herders  should  be  posted — Remedies — Permanganate  of 
potash — Poisons  do  not  affect  all  animals  alike — Bloat — 
Loco — Loco  symptoms — Remedies — Larkspurs — Lupines 
— Death  camas — Water  hemlock — Aconite — Scrub  oak 
— Pingue — Rubber  weed — Ergot — Sneeze  weed — Choke 
cherry — Sleepy  grass — Fox  tail  and  squirrel  tail  grass. 246-273 

CHAPTER    XIV — SYMPTOMS    AND    REMEDIES. 
Bloat  —  Remedies  —  Loco  —  Remedies   —   Larkspurs   — 
Lupines  —  Camas  —  Water  hemlock  —  Oaks  —  Ergot 
— Sneeze  weed — Choke  cherry — Pingue — Kafir  corn  and 
sorghum     274-281 

CHAPTER   XV — DISEASES   OF    LIVE    STOCK 282-285 

CHAPTER   XVI— THE    DISEASES    OF    CATTLE. 
Blackleg — Remedial     measures — Texas      fever — Scabies      or 

mange     286-303 

CHAPTER  XVII— DISEASES   OF   SHEEP. 
Scabies — Remedies — Dips  in  use — Lip  and  leg  ulceration.  .  .304-309 

CHAPTER   XVIII — DISEASES   OF   HORSES. 
Colic — Engorgement  or  obstruction  colic — Wind  colic — Azo- 

turia — Remedies — Snake    bites — Glanders    or    farcy ...  .310-319 

CHAPTER  XIX— INSECT  PESTS. 

Insect   pests — Heel    flies    320-326 

CHAPTER  XX — PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST. 

Coyotes — Wild  cats  and  lynxes — Wolves  and  mountain  lions 
— Bears — Trapping  and  poisoning  predatory  animals — 
Scents — Poisons — Prairie  dogs — Poison  for  killing 
prairie  dogs  327-347 

CHAPTER    XXI— SADDLE    HORSES    ON    THE    RANGE. 
Type  of  horse  for  range  work — Gaits — The  American  saddle 

horse 348-354 

CHAPTER  XXII— HORSE   EQUIPMENT   FOR  RANGE  WORK. 
Saddles — Bits      and      bridles — Blankets — Rope — Spurs      and 
quirts — Hobbles — Pack   saddles — Hitches — Now    for    the 
hitch    355-375 

APPENDIX. 
Grazing  bill — A  few  definitions 377-384 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

LUPINE   (LUPINUS)    IN  COLORS Frontispiece 

THE  OLD  TYPE  OF  TEXAS  LONG-HORN  STEER 23 

THE  CERTAIN  RESULT  OF  OVERGRAZING 32 

A  TYPICAL  SOUTHWESTERN  MOUNTAIN  VALLEY  RANGE  IN  THE  YEL- 
LOW PINE  REGION 37 

A  DESERT,  OR  MESQUITE  RANGE,  NEAR  TUCSON,  ARIZ 41 

ALFILERIA  (ERODIUM  CICUTARIUM)  ,  "FILAREE" 42 

GALLETA  (HILARIA  RIGIDA),  PRONOUNCED  GUY-ET-TA 44 

NEEDLE  OR  DOGTOWN  GRASS   (ARISTIDA  LONGISETA) 45 

BUFFALO  GRASS  (BULBILIS  DACTYLOIDES) 46 

CURLY  OR  CREEPING  MESQUITE   (HILARIA  CEN»HROIDES) 47 

BERMUDA  GRASS    (CAPRIOLA  DACTYLON) 48 

BLUE  GRAMA  GRASS   (BOUTELOUA  OLIGOSTACHYA) 51 

HAIRY  GRAMA  GRASS    (BOUTELOUA  VESTITA) 52 

BLACK  GRAMA  GRASS   (MUHLENBERGIA  PORTERI) 53 

SACATON  (SPOROBOLUS  AIROIDES),  SOMETIMES  CALLED  SALT  GRASS.  .  .  55 

SWEET  SAGE  OR  "WINTER-FAT"    (EUROTIA  LAN  ATA) 56 

SERVICE  BERRY    (AMELIANCHIER  ALNIFOLIA) 59 

MOUNTAIN  MAHOGANY  (CERCOCARPUS  PARVIFOLIUS) 60 

SEMI-DESERT  SAGE  RANGE  IN  WYOMING 62 

PRAIRIE  JUNE  GRASS   (KOELERIA  CRISTATA). 67 

BLUESTEM  OR  WESTERN  WHEATGRASS  (AGROPYRON  SMITHII) 68 

MOUNTAIN  BUNCH  GRASS  (FESTUCA  VIRIDULA) 69 

BRIDGES  BUILT  TO  CROSS   SHEEP  OVER  THE  BOISE  RIVER  IN  IDAHO 

AND  BLACK'S  FORK,  UTAH,  UINTA  NATIONAL  FOREST 71 

BLUEGRASS  (POA  PRETENSIS) 73 

FOXTAIL  (HARDEUM  MURINUM) 74 

BRONCHO  GRASS    (BROMUS  RUBENS) 75 

FESTUCA  MYUROS  (SOMETIMES  CALLED  POVERTY  GRASS) 76 

A  TYPICAL  WESTERN  STOCK  RANCH    (IN  UTAH) 83 

TYPE  OF  SHORT-HORN  BULL 93 

TYPE  OF  DEVON   BULL 94 

TYPE  OF  HEREFORD  BULL 94 

TYPE  OF  ANGUS  BULL 95 

TYPE  OF  GALLOWAY    BULL 96 

A  PEN  OF  SHROPSHIRES 100 

A  PAIR  OF  LINCOLNS 101 

HAMPSHIRE    SHEEP   101 

RAMBOUILLET  RAMS 102 

A  COTSWOLD  RAM 105 

A^BAND  OF  COMMON  NEW  MEXICO  GOATS 107 

11 


12          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

ANGORAS  ON  BRUSHY  HILLSIDES  IN  ARIZONA     108 

THE  CHAPAREJOS  WITH  THE  GOAT  SKIN  FRONT  ARE  MORE  THEATRI- 
CAL THAN   PRACTICAL 117 

THE  "Boa  RIDER"  AT  WORK.     PULLING  A  Cow  OUT  OF  A  BOG  HOLE  .  .    121 
A  NEW  MEXICO  ROUND-UP  OUTFIT  AND  AN  OLD-TIME  CHUCK  WAGON  124 

"STOOP  AS  You  NEAR  THE  AVERAGE  Cow  PONY." 125 

THE  CATTLE  ARE  BUNCHED  IN  ONE  GREAT  HERD  AT  THE  ROUND-UP 

GROUND    127 

A  DAT  HERD 128 

A  ROUND-UP  OUTFIT  BRANDING  CALVES 129 

"THEY  ARE  ROPED  AND  DRAGGED  TO  THE  FIRE'' 130 

PUTTING  A  "BUTT"  BRAND  ON  A  CALF 131 

"A  QUICK  JERK  AND  THE  ANIMAL  LANDS  UPON  ITS  SIDE"  132 

THE  "SQEEZE  CHUTE"  FOR  BRANDING  AND  DEHORNING 133 

WESTERN  INSPECTORS  EXAMINING  BRANDS  OF  STEERS 134 

YEARLING    STEERS  IN  YARDS  AT  MAGDALENA,  N.  M.,  AWAITING    IN- 
SPECTION     135 

LOADING  FAT  STEERS  IN  COLORADO 137 

A  SHEEP  WAGON  OR  CAMP  ON  WHEELS  IN  WYOMING 140 

AN    ARIZONA    "SHEEP    WAGON" — BURRO    PACKED    WITH    GRUB    AND 

WATER    141 

"AN  AVERAGE  HAND  SHEARER  WILL  CLIP  60  TO  70  SHEEP  PER  DAY"  145 
"THE    IMPROVED    MACHINES    ENABLE    A    SHEARER    TO    HANDLE    200 

SHEEP  IN  AN  EIGHT-HOUR  DAY"   146 

PENS  AND  YARDS   IN  WHICH   SHEEP  ARE  DIPPED  AND   HANDLED  IN 

NORTHERN  ARIZONA 148 

A  BAND  OF  RANGE  LAMBS  AND  EWES  ON  A  HOT  DAY 149 

THE  "GALVANIZED  EWE"  OR  ORPHAN  LAMBS  ARTIFICIALLY  FED 150 

A  LAMBING  TENT  IN  OREGON 153 

IN  HEAVY  TIMBER  "CUTS"  MAY  OCCUR,  AND  THE  BAND  SHOULD  NOT 

BE  so  LARGE  AS  ON  THE  OPEN  RANGE 155 

A  HERDER  CAN  LOOK  AFTER  MANY  MORE  SHEEP  ON  AN  OPEN  RANGE 

THAN  ON  A  BROKEN  RANGE 157 

A  COYOTE-PROOF  FENCE  IN  THE^WALLOWA  MOUNTAINS.     BUILT  BY 

THE  FOREST  SERVICE  IN  OREGON 158,   159 

A  PEN  OF  ANGORA  KIDS  IN  NEW  MEXICO 162 

TEETH  OF  THE  CALF 164 

TEETH  OF  THE  Cow 165 

TEETH  OF  THE  HORSE 168 

TEETH  OF  THE  SHEEP 170,   171 

"Hoc  TIED" — A  HORSE  TIED  DOWN  FOR  BRANDING  OR  DOCTORING  .  . .    182 

EAR  MARKS    185 

BRAND  BOOKS 186,   187,   188,   189,  190,   191 

BRANDS    192,    193,    194,    196,   197 

"DOWN  THESE  TRAILS  THE  WATER  FINALLY  TORE". 228 

OLD   STOCK   TRAILS   WASHED   OUT,   FORMING   ARROYOS    IN    MEADOW 

LAND 229 

AN  ARIZONA  RANGE  AFTER  A  HARD  SPRING 231 

A  RANGE  OF  "SNAKE"  OR  "FIRE"  WEED  WHICH  Is  SOMETIMES  MIS- 
TAKEN FOR  FEED    .  .237 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  13 

ORCHARD  GRASS  (DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA) 239 

TIMOTHY  (PHLEUM  PRATENSE) 239 

RED  TOP  (AGROSTIS  ALBA) „ 240 

HUNGARIAN  BROME  GRASS  (BROMUS  INERMIS) 241 

WOOLLY  OR  PURPLE  Loco  (ASTRAGALUS  MOLLISSIMUS),  IN  COLORS,, 

Facing  page  256 

WHITE  Loco  OR  RATTLE  WEED  IN  FLOWER  (ARAGALLUS  LAMBERTI)  .  .  257 

Loco  ON  THE  RANGE  NEAR  ALBUQUERQUE,  N.  M 258 

A  LOCOED  ANIMAL  WILL  STEP  HIGH  OVER  ANYTHING — EVEN  A  ROPE 

OR  A  TRAIL 260 

A  TYPICAL  LOCOED  ANIMAL 261 

PURPLE  LARKSPUR  (DELPHINIUM  BICOLOR),  IN  COLORS  .Facing  page  264 

DEATH  CAMAS  (ZYGADENUS  VENENOSUS).,  IN  COLORS  ..  .Facing  page  266 

WATER  HEMLOCCK  (CICUTA  VAGANS),  IN  COLORS Facing  page  267 

ACONITE  (ACONITUM  COLUMBIANUM),  MONK'S  HOOD,  IN  COLORS, 

Facing  page  268 

PORTION  OF  A  STEER'S  HIDE,,  SHOWING  THE  TEXAS-FEVER  TICK 295 

DORSAL  AND  VENTRAL  VIEWS  OF  THE  TEXAS-FEVER  TICK 299 

DIPPING  CATTLE  IN  OKLAHOMA  FOR  TEXAS-FEVER  TICKS 302 

AFTER  BEING  DIPPED,  THE  SHEEP  PASS  THROUGH  A  DRIPPING  PEN 

AT  THE  END  307 

THE  HEEL  FLY  (HYPORDERMA  LINEATA) 322 

A  BOGGED  DOWN  Cow  OVERLOOKED  BY  THE  "Boo  RIDERS" 323 

THE  CAMP  OF  Two  GOVERNMENT  HUNTERS  IN  THE  BOISE  NATIONAL 

FOREST  328 

A  COYOTE  IN  A  TRAP 329 

"THE  LION  is  DIFFICULT  TO  TRAP  BUT  EASY  TO  CAPTURE  WITH 

HOUNDS"  331 

A  PRAIRIE  DOG  MOUND  IN  AN  ALFALFA  FIELD 341 

NOTE  THE  NOSE  MARKS  MADE  IN  THE  WET  SOIL  WHEN  TJHE  PRAIRIE 

DOGS  REPAIR  THEIR  MOUNDS 341 

DISTRIBUTING  PRAIRIE  DOG  POISON 345 

AN  AWKWARD  WAY  TO  MOUNT 352 

THE  PROPER  WAY  TO  MOUNT — "READY  TO  SWING  INTO  THE  SADDLE".  353 

THE  Low  HORN  TEXAS  TREE,,  WEIGHT,  40  POUNDS 355 

THE  SWELLED  FORK  TREE 355 

THE  MCCLELLAN  SADDLE 356 

THE  CALIFORNIA  SADDLE  356 

SPANISH  BITS 358 

SPURS 362 

THE  FIRST  STEP  IN  HOBBLING 363 

THE  SECOND  AND  THIRD  STEP  IN  HOBBLING 364 

PACK  SADDLES  366 

THE  HITCH  371,  372 

PACK  POCKETS 374 

A  FIRST-CLASS  JOB  OF  PACKING 365 

PACKING  DOWN  A  MOUNTAIN  SIDE 367 

A  HANDY  BED  PACK,  SOMETIMES  CALLED  THE  "OREGON  WIND" 369 


PREFACE. 

Every  author  believes  that  the  book  which  he  is  plac- 
ing before  the  public  will  "fill  a  long-felt  want,"  and 
success  or  failure  depends  very  much  on  how  closely 
he  has  been  able  to  gauge  the  nature  of  the  "long-felt 
want."  In  writing  this  book,  I  have  had  in  view  the  de- 
mand for  some  practical  work  on  the  grazing  side  of 
their  profession  by  the  young  men  who  are  entering 
or  preparing  to  enter  the  Forest  Service  of  the  United 
States. 

The  science  of  forestry  is  a  new  one  to  the  most  of 
us,  and  the  conditions  here  are  so  very  different  from 
those  in  older  countries,  where  it  has  been  studied  for 
many  years,  that  we  are  forced  to  meet  and  solve  many 
new  problems  for  which  there  are  no  precedents  or  es- 
tablished rules.  Among  the  most  perplexing  questions 
which  the  student  of  forestry  must  cope  with  here  is 
that  of  utilizing  the  area  included  in  the  National  For- 
ests so  as  to  get  for  the  people  the  full  value  of  all  its 
resources.  One  of  the  greatest  of  these  resources  is 
the  feed  and  forage  which  will  furnish  sustenance  for 
millions  of  cattle,  horses  and  sheep.  Like  the  "wheel 
that  will  not  turn  with  the  water  that  has  passed,"  this 
feed  must  be  used  as  it  grows  each  season  or  be  forever 
wasted.  It  cannot  be  stored  or  saved  for  future  use. 

From  the  first  settlement  of  this  country  the  pioneers 
have  used  the  vacant  lands  about  them  for  grazing  their 
stock  with  little  or  no  supervision  or  restraint,  and  no 

15 


16  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

scheme  which  presumes  to  lock  up  these  grazing  areas 
against  the  coming  of  the  settlers'  herds  will  ever  meet 
with  the  approval  of  the  American  people.  It  is  true  we 
must  have  trees  and  lumber,  but  we  must  first  of  all  be 
fed,  and  the  meat-producing  powers  of  the  grasses 
growing  on  these  forested  areas  are  entirely  too  valu- 
able to  be  overlooked  or  ignored.  Therefore  it  is  well 
that  this  has  been  recognized  at  the  beginning  of  our 
forestry  work,  and  careful  plans  laid  to  utilize  every 
spear  of  grass  and  bit  of  forage  where  it  may  be  done 
without  defeating  the  original  purpose  of  establishing 
the  National  Forests. 

Heretofore  those  handling  the  grazing  side  of  this 
work  have  been  drawn  from  that  class  of  men  who 
have  all  their  lives  been  identified  with  stockraising — 
practical  men  accustomed  to  the  range  and  understand- 
ing the  needs  of  stockmen  from  a  utilitarian  rather  than 
a  scientific  standpoint.  But  this  source  of  supply  can- 
not always  be  depended  upon.  The  author  believes 
the  two  matters  go  hand  in  hand,  and  that  there  is  room 
for  the  trained  forester  and  the  trained  grazing  man  on 
the  same  platform.  Scientific  as  well  as  practical  for- 
estry demands  men  educated  especially  for  the  work, 
and  the  young  fellows  who  are  graduating  from  our 
forestry  schools  will  eventually  fill  the  places  on  the  for- 
ests now  held  by  graduates  from  the  western  school 
of  "hard  knocks,"  the  course  of  which,  for  most  of  them, 
covered  many  long  and  weary  years  before  they  re- 
ceived their  diplomas. 

These  young  graduates  cannot  of  course  have  any 
great  knowledge  of  the  practical  side  of  the  stockman's 
work,  because  so  much  of  it  must  be  learned  from  actual 
experience  and  every-day  life  on  the  ranges.  Never- 


PREFACE  17 

theless  the  author  believes  it  possible  to  put  the  ex- 
perience of  thirty  years'  handling  live  stock  on  the  open 
ranges  under  all  sorts  -of  conditions  into  a  book  that 
will  be  of  some  practical  use  and  benefit  to  these  stu- 
dents and  others  engaged  in  the  work.  So  far  as  pos- 
sible, I  have  endeavored  to  write  things  down  from 
the  practical  point  of  view,  and  to  put  them  in  language 
that  would  not  smother  their  meaning  in  a  haze  of  scien- 
tific or  professional  expressions. 

The  chapters  on  poisonous  plants  and  range  grasses 
will,  I  trust,  be  found  of  value,  not  only  to  the  forest 
man  but  to  the  stockman.  In  my  experience  I  have 
found  few  stockmen  who  could  identify  by  their  proper 
names  even  the  commonest  grasses  on  their  ranges  or 
the  various  plants  poisonous  to  stock,  and  I  hope  that 
the  illustrations  and  plates  scattered  through  the  work 
will  furnish  a  means  of  identifying  them  that  will  make 
the  book  of  value  for  that,  if  nothing  more.  It  is  possible 
that  the  trained  botanist  will  find  errors  in  my  classifi- 
cation of  some  of  the  plants.  I  have  made  every  effort 
to  check  up  each  one  of  them  and  make  certain  they  were 
correct,  but  in  several  instances  I  found  that  the  scien- 
tists themselves  did  not  all  agree  as  to  their  proper  names. 

In  the  chapter  on  diseases  of  animals  I  have  only 
tried  to  show  the  plainest  symptoms  of  the  ordinary 
diseases  that  affect  live  stock  as  they  appear  to  a  stock- 
man and  not  a  veterinarian.  It  is  of  course  impossible 
to  have  a  veterinarian  at  hand  for  every  sickness  that 
the  stockman  finds  among  his  domestic  animals,  and 
it  is  to  cover  these  emergency  cases  that  I  have  written. 
Most  of  the  remedies  are  those  to  be  found  in  every 
stock-owner's  cabin,  and  if  not  they  should  be  there. 
To  the  forest  ranger,  out  in  the  hills  with  his  saddle 


18          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

horses  and  possibly  a  milk  cow  or  two,  I  deemed  this 
information  of  unusual  value,  because  of  his  isolation 
and  dependence  upon  his  own  efforts  to  relieve  the  suf- 
fering animal.  Most  of  these  remedies  have  been  tried 
by  myself  or  used  by  others  under  my  own  observation. 

In  handling  the  various  sections  of  the  country  in 
regard  to  the  ranges  it  has  not  been  possible  to  cover 
every  state,  but  I  have  taken  some  specific  well-known 
range  and  let  it  answer  for  that  region  as  a  whole. 
Doubtless  many  readers  will  wonder  why  such  and  such 
a  plant  or  bush,  prominent  on  his  immediate  range,  has 
not  been  mentioned.  Because  of  lack  of  room,  many 
forage  plants  and  grasses  have  been  omitted,  but  I  be- 
lieve those  which  have  been  included  are  the  species 
most  generally  found  through  the  range  country,  and  it 
was  out  of  the  question  to  mention  them  all.  In  run- 
ning down  the  local  names  for  many  grasses  and  browse 
I  have  found  different  names  for  the  same  plant  very 
common.  Buck  brush  in  California  is  not  the  buck  brush 
of  either  Arizona  or  Montana,  while  there  are  as  many 
different  kinds  of  bunch  grasses  as  there  are  states  in 
the  West. 

The  chapter  covering  saddle  horses,  saddle  equip- 
ment and  packing  is  for  the  benefit  of  the  beginner  who 
may  want  some  information  on  these  subjects  as  a  guide 
to  his  investments  in  such  things. 

The  author  desires  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness 
to  many  friends  for  advice  on  matters  connected  with 
the  work,  and  especially  to  Mr.  Frederick  Coville,  Dr. 
A.  S.  Hitchcock,  Dr.  R.  H.  True  and  C.  D.  Marsh  of 
the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  and  James  T.  Jardine  of  the 
Forest  Service,  whose  kind  suggestions  upon  matters  on 
which  they  are  so  well  posted  has  been  of  great  benefit. 


PREFACE  19 

I  have  also  received  much  assistance  which  I  desire 
frankly  and  gratefully  to  acknowledge,  from  the  many 
Government  publications  written  by  such  well-known 
authorities  as  David  Griffiths,  F.  Lamson-Scribner,  V. 
K.  Chestnut,  E.  V.  Wilcox,  Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam,  Ver- 
non  Bailey,  James  T.  Jardine,  Richard  W.  Hickman,  D. 
E.  Salmon,  Herbert  T.  Osborn,  C.  D.  Marsh  and  others, 
who  are  always  so  reliable  and  thorough  in  their  inves- 
tigative work.  In  identifying  the  various  plants  and 
grasses  the  work  "American  Grasses,"  by  F.  Lamson- 
Scribner,  constituting  Division  of  Agrostology  Bulletins 
Nos.  7,  9,  17  and  20,  has  been  of  the  greatest  assistance 
and  frequently  consulted. 

The  labor  involved  in  getting  together  the  material 
for  this  volume  has  been  considerable,  but  the  pleasure 
derived  and  the  information  gained,  made  it  indeed  a 
labor  of  love  and  well  worth  while.  If  the  book  is  of 
use  to  the  young  men  who  are  taking  up  forestry  as 
their  life-work,  in  assisting  them  to  a  better  understand- 
ing of  some  of  the  many  problems  which  they  will  meet 
in  handling  grazing  matters  upon  the  forests,  or  to  stock- 
men themselves  in  managing  their  herds,  the  writer  will 
feel  well  repaid  for  his  work. 

WILL  C.  BARNES. 
Washington,  D.  C,  July,  1913. 


20          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  CONSULTED. 

The  author  gladly  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to 
the  writers  of  the  following  publications,  among  the 
many  others  which  he  has  consulted  in  getting  together 
the  material  for  this  book : 

"AMERICAN  GRASSES/'  Buls.  7,  9,  17  and  20,  Division  of  Agrostology, 
Department  of  Agriculture  ;  F.  Lamson-Scribner. 

"A  PROTECTED  STOCK  RANGE  IN  ARIZONA/'  Bui.  177,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture ;  David  Griffiths. 

"COYOTE  PROOF  PASTURE  EXPERIMENT/'  Cir.  160,  Forest  Service,  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture ;  J.  T.  Jardine. 

"DESTRUCTION  OF  WOLVES  AND  COYOTES/'  Cir.  63,  Bureau  of  Biological 
Survey  ;  Vef  non  Bailey. 

"DISEASES  OF  CATTLE/'  Issued  by  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"DISEASES  OF  HORSES/'  Issued  by  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"FOREST  TREES   OF  THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE/'  G.   B.   Sudworth. 

"INSECTS  AFFECTING  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS/'  Bui.  5,  New  Series,  Division 
of  Entomology,  Department  of  Agriculture ;  Herbert  Osborn. 

"Loco  DISEASE  OF  THE  PLAINS/'  Bui.  112,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry; 
C.  D.  Marsh. 

"METHODS  OF  ERADICATING  CATTLE  TICKS,"  Cir.  110,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry;  L.  A.  Klein. 

"PASTURAGE     SYSTEM     FOR     HANDLING     RANGE     SHEEP/'     Cir.     178,     Forest 

Service ;  J.  T.  Jardine. 

"PRINCIPAL  POISONOUS  PLANTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES/'  Bui.  20,  Di- 
vision of  Botany,  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"SCABIES  OF  CATTLE/'  Farmers'  Bui.   152;   Richard  W.   Hickman. 

"SCAB  IN  SHEEP/'  Farmers'  Bui.    159  ;  D.  E.  Salmon  and  C.  W.  Stiles. 

"SOME  POISONOUS  PLANTS  OF  THE  NORTHERN  STOCK  RANGES/'  Year- 
book, Department  of  Agriculture,  1900  ;  V.  K.  Chestnut. 

"STOCK  POISONING  PLANTS  OF  MONTANA/'  Bui.  26,  Division  of  Botany, 
Department  of  Agriculture ;  V.  K.  Chestnut  and  E.  V.  Wilcox. 

"TEXAS  OR  TICK  FEVER  AND  ITS  PREVENTION/'  Farmers'  Bui.  258  ;  John 
R.  Mohler. 

"THE  LARKSPURS  AS  POISONOUS  PLANTS/'  Bui.  Ill,  Part  1,  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry;  G.  H.  Crawford. 

"THE  PRAIRIE  DOG  OF  THE  GREAT  PLAINS/'  Yearbook,  Department  of 
Agriculture,  1901 ;  C.  Hart  Merriam. 

"THE  RED  DESERT  OF  WYOMING/'  Bui.  13,  Division  of  Agrostology,  De"^ 
partment  of  Agriculture ;  Aven  Nelson. 

"THIRTY  POISONOUS  PLANTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,"  Farmers'  Bui.  8G  ; 
Chestnut. 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  EARLY  WESTERN  RANGE. 

From  the  time  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  down  to  the 
present  day  one  of  the  greatest  resources  of  the  United 
States  has  been  the  natural  grasses  and  forage  plants 
upon  which  millions  of  domestic  animals  are  annually 
supported.  Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  grasses  and  herb- 
age, the  business  of  the  grazier  was  not  developed  in  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  United  States  to  the  same  ex- 
tent as  in  the  states  lying  west  of  the  Missouri  River. 

The  climatic  conditions  in  the  eastern  states  made  it 
impossible  to  utilize  the  grasses  all  the  year  round,  ex- 
cept by  harvesting  them  and  storing  the  crop  away  for 
winter  use. 

In  the  more  arid  sections  west  of  the  Missouri,  known 
as  the  region  of  the  Great  American  Desert,  are  found 
grasses  that  cure  on  the  ground  in  the  pure  dry  air,  while 
a  shortage  of  rainfall  allows  them  to  lie  on  the  ground 
without  serious  deterioration.  Here  in  this  desert  coun- 
try are  also  found  the  great  family  of  the  sages  and 
many  other  forage  plants  of  more  or  less  value  known 
as  "browse"  the  "cha-mi-za"  of  the  Spanish  herders. 

Early  Events. — As  early  as  1800,  before  the  tide  of 
settlers  had  crossed  the  summit  of  the  Alleghanies,  the 
Spanish  had  established  themselves  on  the  far  west 
coast  from  San  Diego  north,  and  their  herds  of  cattle, 

21 


22  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

sheep  and  horses  covered  the  ranges  in  great  numbers. 
In  1834,  according  to  Dana  in  his  "Two  Years  Before 
the  Mast,"  a  single  trading  vessel  picked  up  in  one 
trip  no  less  than  40,000  steer  hides  at  three  California 
ports,  San  Diego,  Monterey  and  Santa  Barbara.  Little 
effort  was  made  by  these  early  graziers  to  grow  feed 
for  their  animals.  They  simply  allowed  them  to  scatter 
over  the  hills  and  plains  of  the  Pacific  Slope  where  the 
unlimited  ranges  afforded  plenty  of  feed  to  meet  all  in- 
crease without  danger  of  overstocking. 

With  the  gradual  settlement  of  the  coast  country, 
due  to  the  rush  of  gold  seekers,  and  the  increase  in  the 
herds,  the  owners  began  to  crowd  over  the  summit  of 
the  Sierras  with  their  stock  into  Nevada  and  across 
deserts  and  mountains  into  Arizona.  While  this  east- 
erly movement  was  taking  place  on  the  western  slope, 
the  hardy  pioneers  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  were  pressing  slowly  out  across  the  Mississippi 
River.  They  passed  through  Missouri  and  across  the 
Missouri  River  into  Kansas,  where  on  those  great  sweep- 
ing plains  the  tide  spread  out  fan-shape,  working  slowly 
and  steadily  westward.  To  the  northwest  they  drifted 
through  the  states  of  Minnesota,,  the  Dakotas  and  Mon- 
tana; to  the  southwest  through  what  is  now  Oklahoma, 
across  the  staked  plains  of  Texas  to  western  Kansas 
and  to  Colorado.  Another  stream  flowed  in  the  track  of 
the  Mormon  expedition,  which  in  1847  blazed  the  trail 
across  the  plains  in  an  almost  due  westerly  course 
through  the  center  of  the  then  trackless  and  practically 
unknown  American  Desert  until  Utah  was  reached. 

The  Genesis  of  the  Trail  Herds.— Probably  the  cradle 
of  the  range  grazing  business  was  in  the  great  state  of 
Texas,  where  the  raising  of  cattle  and  horses,  and  later 


THE  EARLY  WESTERN  RANGE 


23 


sheep,  on  the  wonderfully  grassed  plains  that  stretched 
for  unbroken  leagues  wherever  one  went,  was  under- 
taken on  a  business  basis.  By  the  time  the  first  Pa- 
cific railroads  began  to  work  their  way  across  the  Kan- 
sas prairies,  Texas  had  increased  her  herds  until  there 
was  a  glut  of  stock  all  over  the  state  and  it  was  almost 
worthless  because  of  the  lack  of  a  market. 

In   1867  began  the   movement  to   relieve  the  Texas 
ranges  of  their  surplus  cattle  by  establishing  those  great 


The  Old  Type  of  Texas  Long-horn  Steer. 

trails  from  the  south  up  through  the  staked  plains,  across 
the  Indian  Territory  into  Kansas.  There  they  met  the 
iron  horse  and  found  an  opening  to  the  eastern  mar- 
kets. Thousands  of  long-horned  steers  grazed  their  way 
over  the  grassy  plains,  starting  in  the  early  spring 
from  the  southern  ranges.  There  was  no  hurry  and  no 


24          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

crowding  of  the  animals;  they  slowly  fed  their  way  to 
market,  gaining  flesh  with  every  day's  drive,  seldom 
making  more  than  eight  or  ten  miles  a  day  and  arriving 
at  their  journey's  end  almost  ready  for  beef. 

As  the  railroads  forged  westward  the  tide  of  emigra- 
tion followed.  Farms  were  taken  up;  lonely  stations 
grew  into  towns  and  cities,  and  the  cattlemen,  seeking 
constantly  the  unfenced  open  ranges  and  fresh  feed  for 
the  herds,  moved  westward  with  the  end  of  the  road. 

The  Buffalo. — The  first  Pacific  railroad,  with  its 
line  of  settlements,  acted  like  a  wedge  in  splitting  the 
great  herd  of  buffaloes  that  covered  the  country  in  the 
early  days  in  almost  countless  numbers.  Gradually 
their  annual  migrations  from  the  north  to  the  south 
and  back  again  ceased  until  there  were  two  distinct 
buffalo  herds :  a  northern  and  a  southern.  Each  was 
gradually  exterminated  through  many  causes,  the  chief 
of  which  doubtless  was  the  wanton  and  incomprehen- 
sible lust  of  civilized  man  for  killing. 

However,  in  the  final  analysis  it  was  simply  the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest,  and  the  cattle  and  sheep  belonging  to 
the  settlers  were  far  more  valuable  as  meat  producers 
than  the  buffaloes. 

The  Stockman's  Westward  Advance. — In  the  latter 
part  of  the  70's  the  West  awoke  to  the  opportunities 
offered  for  raising  cattle  and  sheep  upon  the  open  ranges 
that  lay  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  from  the  Mexican 
to  the  Canadian  line.  Great  cattle  companies  were  form- 
ed in  the  East  and  also  in  Europe,  whose  promoters 
went  into  Texas  and  bought  thousands  of  long-horned 
cattle  and  moved  them  north  onto  the  vacant  ranges. 
Millions  were  invested  in  the  enterprise  and  for  a  few 
years  millions  were  made,  principally  in  speculation, 
promotion,  and  on  paper. 


THE  EARLY  WESTERN  RANGE 


25 


The  stockmen  of  the  West  were  a  prodigal  as  well  as 
a  restless  lot.  With  an  almost  unlimited  world  in  front 
of  them  they  resented  the  crowding  that  began  to  de- 
velop, and  there  was  a  constant  pushing  forward  fur- 
ther and  further  out  into  the  prairies.  They  disputed 
with  the  Indian  and  the  buffalo  for  the  occupancy  of  the 
land,  with  the  result  that  always  follows  where  the 
white  man  comes.  The  red  man,  and  his  friend  the 
buffalo,  slowly  melted  away  and  eventually  the  advance 
guard  from  the  far  eastern  coast  met  the  tide  of  pioneers 
from  the  west  coast.  In  the  Southwest  they  met  along 
the  Rio  Grande  in  New  Mexico  and  Colorado,  while  to 
the  Northwest  those  that  crowded  over  the  Cascades  in 
Oregon  and  Washington  met  the  advancing  tide  from  the 
East  pouring  over  the  backbone  of  the  Rockies,  and — 
the  frontier  was  no  more. 

The  Inevitable  Happens. — Not  an  acre  of  the  land 
was  left  unoccupied,  and  ranges  that  for  permanent 
and  regular  use  would  have  been  overstocked  with 
a  cow  to  every  100  acres  were  loaded  until  they  were 
carrying  one  to  every  ten.  Into  western  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  eastern  Colorado,  out  into  the  Red  Desert 
country  of  Wyoming  and  Utah,  up  across  Montana  and 
the  two  Dakotas  clear  to  the  Canadian  line,  they  pres- 
sed in  their  mad  search  for  grass.  No  one  provided  any 
feed  for  the  winter,  the  owners  preferring  to  risk  the 
losses.  Gradually  the  native  grasses  disappeared.  As 
fast  as  a  blade  of  grass  showed  above  the  ground  some 
hungry  animal  gnawed  it  off.  A  few  men  sounded  a 
note  of  alarm,  but  the  most  of  the  owners  declined  to 
realize  the  approaching  disaster  and  drifted  along  in 
their  fancied  opulence. 

Then  came  the  inevitable.     The  winter  of  1886  saw 


26          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

the  almost  total  extinction  of  the  industry  in  the  north- 
western states.  Thousands  of  cattle  went  into  that  win- 
ter never  to  see  the  spring  flowers  again.  Great  cattle 
companies  with  managers  riding  back  and  forth  to  the 
frontier  towns  in  coaches  and  six,  drawing  princely  sal- 
aries for  doing  nothing,  went  out  of  existence.  Millions 
of  dollars  were  lost  beyond  hope  of  recovery.  A  few 
years  later,  in  1893,  the  Southwest  went  through  the 
same  experience,  and  still  greater  losses  were  piled  up 
against  the  industry. 

The  Era  of  Readjustment. — Then  there  was  a  grad- 
ual readjustment  of  the  business.  Many  of  the  great 
companies  operating  on  borrowed  money  went  to  the 
wall,  and  the  remnants  of  their  herds  were  bought  up 
by  men  whose  faith  in  the  business  still  was  strong. 
From  that  time  to  this  the  business  of  raising  cattle  upon 
the  open  ranges  has  been  a  fluctuating  one.  Man's 
greed  to  obtain  something  for  nothing  has  never  yet 
been  able  to  content  itself  with  a  moderate  profit.  Each 
man  looked  upon  the  grass  of  the  range  as  something 
which  he  must  grab  before  anyone  else  could  reach  it. 
Hence  the  grasses  were  given  no  chance  to  grow,  and  a 
few  good  years  were  follo'wed  by  a  bad  one  which  wiped 
out  all  the  profits.  What  the  winter  storms  did  not  kill 
the  "bog  holes"  caught  in  the  spring. 

The  Advent  of  the  Sheepman. — Along  in  the  early 
'90's  the  sheepmen  began  to  gain  a  foothold  on  the 
ranges,  especially  in  the  northwestern  states.  Gradu- 
ally they  forced  tfte  cows  back  from  their  old  ranges, 
and  many  long-headed  cowmen  in  sheer  self-defence 
turned  their  cattle  into  sheep  and  joined  the  ranks  of 
the  wool-growers.  The  sheepman  was  much  more  able 
to  cope  with  the  elements  than  was  the  cattleman.  He 


THE  EARLY  WESTERN  RANGE 


27 


had  his  herd  under  his  eye  at  all  times,  and  could  move 
it  to  better  feed  before  the  animals  became  too  weak 
to  travel.  He  also  found  out  much  earlier  than  did  the 
cattleman  that  buying  feed  against  a  hard  winter  was 
money  well  invested. 

In  many  ways  the  sheepmen  profited  by  the  bitter 
experience  of  the  cattlemen,  and  avoided  many  of  their 
pitfalls.  Thus  the  ranges  were  divided  and  in  many  of 
the  states,  especially  Wyoming,  Montana  and  Idaho,  the 
sheepmen  gradually  forced  the  cattle  interests  into  the 
background. 

Range  Wars. — Bitter  range  wars  followed.  All  over 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region  the  conflicts  between  the 
two  interests  have  cost  many  lives,  both  human  and 
animal,  together  with  great  financial  losses.  Dead-lines 
were  drawn  by  the  cattlemen  across  which  no  sheepman 
could  cross  with  his  herd  and  not  pay  dearly  for  his 
temerity. 

In  Arizona  the  Tonto  Basin  war  waged  for  three 
years  and  cost  more  than  thirty  lives,  besides  keeping  a 
whole  country  in  a  state  of  terror  in  the  meantime.  In 
western  Colorado,  especially  in  Routt  county,  the  con- 
flict between  the  sheepmen  and  cattlemen  over  the  use 
of  the  ranges  has  been  a  serious  menace  to  both  sides. 
In  the  Blue  Mountains  of  Oregon  thousands  of  sheep 
were  killed  by  irate  cattlemen,  and  in  the  Green  River 
district  of  Wyoming  there  have  been  frequent  whole- 
sale slaughterings  of  sheep. 

The  sheepmen  in  turn  swept  across  the  ranges  oc- 
cupied by  cattle,  leaving  a  wide  swath  as  clean  of  vegeta- 
tion as  if  a  fire  had  passed  over  it.  Fierce  conflicts  fol- 
lowed such  action.  Herders  were  killed,  camps  raided 
or  "shot  up"  and  the  sheep  were  taken  from  the  herders 


28          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

and  scattered  to  the  four  winds  a  prey  to  coyotes.  On 
one  occasion  several  thousand  were  forced  into  a  stream 
full  of  quicksands  and  boggy  places,  in  which  hundreds 
stuck  arid  died  like  flies  on  sticky  fly-paper.  Saltpetre 
was  scattered  plentifully  over  salting  grounds  used  by 
the  cattle,  which  the  salt-hungry  sheep  eagerly  sought, 
and  the  saltpetre,  harmless  to  the  cattle,  killed  many 
sheep. 

A  Sample  Attack. — Once  in  northern  Arizona  ten 
bands  of  sheep,  each  with  about  2,500  head,  had  swept 
across  the  ranges  along  the  little  Colorado  River,  ha- 
rassed by  the  cattlemen  every  foot  of  the  way.  But  with 
an  armed  force  of  forty  or  fifty  men  as  a  guard,  they 
were  never  seriously  checked  in  their  westward  march. 
One  night  the  whole  outfit  camped  in  one  of  the  beau- 
tiful open  parks  under  the  shadow  of  the  San  Francisco 
peaks.  The  ten  bands  were  bedded  down  in  peace  and 
quiet,  when  a  hundred  or  more  range  horses,  wild  as 
deer,  were  driven  among  them,  followed  by  fifteen  or 
twenty  cowboys  whose  yells  and  shots  from  their  six- 
shooters  sent  the  half-crazed  horses  down  onto  the  sheep 
like  a  cyclone. 

The  horses  had  been  'previously  placed  in  a  corral, 
and  the  boys  had  worked  hard  for  several  hours  throw- 
ing and  hog-tying  a  lot  of  them  to  prepare  them  for  the 
"ceremony."  Several  horses  had  been  decorated  with 
dry  raw  hides  tied  hard  and  fast  to  their  tails,  while 
huge  cowbells  had  been  strapped  about  the  necks  of  fif- 
teen or  twenty  more.  The  herders  sprang  to  their  feet 
and  met  the  oncoming  horses  with  shots  from  their 
rifles.  This  served  rather  to  make  the  work  of  the  ani- 
mals even  more  destructive,  for  they  tore  back  and  forth 
across  the  park  into  and  out  of  the  bands,  leaving  a 


THE  EARLY  WESTERN  RANGE 


29 


wake  of  dead  and  maimed  sheep  and  throwing  the  whole 
25,000  into  one  almost  inextricable  mass  of  bleating,  ter- 
rified animals. 

•  As  soon  as  the  horses  were  well  launched  into  the 
sheep  the  rascals  who  engineered  the  job  swung  around 
the  place  to  a  safe  distance,  while  the  horses  finally 
drifted  on  into  the  darkness,  leaving  some  dead ;  but  this 
was  a  small  loss  in  those  days  of  cheap  range  horses. 
It  took  the  sheep-herders  a  full  week  to  untangle  the 
mess  and  separate  the  various  brands  and  marks  into 
their  respective  bands.  Nor  were  the  sheepmen  back- 
ward about  obtaining  revenge  so  far  as  lay  in  their 
power.  While  some  of  these  predatory  losses  were  great, 
still  in  the  end  they  obtained  the  grass  for  their 
sheep,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  their 
enemies  suffered  by  the  devastated  ranges  far  more  than 
did  they  from  the  loss  of  a  few  sheep. 

Happily,  however,  the  days  of  such  deeds  have  pas- 
sed. Today  looking  back  over  it  one  wonders  what  we 
were  all  thinking  of  and  how  it  was  that  more  lives  were 
not  lost  than  were.  Only  those  who  have  passed  through 
these  times  can  fully  appreciate  the  reasons  and  causes 
which  led  up  to  such  apparently  lawless  acts.  There 
was  no  legal  justification  for  any  of  them,  and  they  were 
certainly  discreditable  to  all  concerned.  In  spite  of  all 
such  attempts  to  curb  its  progress,  the  sheep  industry 
has  gone  on  almost  without  a  pause,  until  today  it  is 
too  firmly  intrenched  in  the  West  to  be  disturbed  or 
forced  back  by  any  other  class  of  domestic  stock. 

Government  Control  of  Grazing  Lands. — Then  came 
the  demand  for  some  sort  of  Government  control  of  the 
ranges.  It  came  from  the  cattlemen  at  first,  and  for  sev- 
eral years  the  sheepmen  have  refused  to  admit  its  value 


30          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

or  necessity.  The  results  of  regulated  grazing-  upon  the 
various  National  Forests  have  however  been  a  good  ex- 
ample of  what  could  be  accomplished  by  some  reasonable 
range  control.  Conflicts  have  been  avoided;  depleted 
ranges  have  been  restored,  and  it  is  the  boast  of  the  For- 
est Service  that  not  a  single  hostile  shot  has  been  fired 
between  the  two  interests,  nor  any  stock  maliciously 
killed  on  the  National  Forests,  since  they  were  estab- 
lished. 

Today  many  of  the  leading  sheepmen  of  the  country 
believe  that  the  permanence  of  their  business  will  be 
guaranteed  by  a  general  supervision  of  the  grazing 
ranges  by  some  authority  whose  presence  will  prevent 
overstocking,  too  early  grazing  and  complete  destruction 
of  the  range,  together  with  guaranteeing  its  fair  division 
between  all  users.  The  only  question  in  the  matter 
is  one  of  enforcement.  On  this  point  the  sheepmen  dif- 
fer. An  obstructive  majority  demands  to  be  let  alone, 
although  admitting  many  of  the  claims  made  by  the 
more  progressive.  They  are  fearing  they  know  not  what 
in  the  administration  of  the  law.  They  realize  that  the 
case  is  urgent,  and  that  the  patient  needs  attention.  They 
concede  the  necessity  f6r  calling  a  doctor,  but  cannot 
agree  as  to  which  doctor  they  should  have. 

A  law  covering  this  question,  drawn  by  men  of  both 
sides  and  believed  to  be  as  fair  and  just  as  such  a  law 
can  be  made,  has  been  introduced  in  Congress.  A  copy 
of  this  bill  is  printed  in  this  work  to  show  exactly  the 
points  involved.  Its  passage  depends  wholly  upon  the 
amount  of  support  it  receives  from  the  stockmen  them- 
selves. At  present  the  cattlemen  are  almost  a  unit  for 
it,  while  a  majority  of  the  sheep  interests  are  opposed 
to  it.  That  it  will  some  day  become  a  law  seems  certain. 


THE  EARLY  WESTERN  RANGE  31 

The  Curtailment  of  the  Open  Range. — Within  the 
last  eight  years  the  inroads  made  by  irrigation  systems 
and  dry  farmers  have  been  serious,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  stockman  using  the  range.  Vast  areas  hith- 
erto supposed  to  be  fit  only  for  grazing  have  been  torn 
up  by  the  farmer's  plow,  and  while  not  all  of  it  has  been 
farmed,  there  is  so  much  fencing  on  the  ranges  that  por- 
tions of  the  rest  cannot  be  utilized  successfully.  This 
is  especially  true  in  the  Dakotas,  New  Mexico,  western 
and  northwestern  Texas  and  Colorado,  where  thousands 
of  cattle  and  sheep  have  been  crowded  from  their  ranges 
and  forced  onto  the  market,  owing  to  the  advances  of 
"the  man  with  the  hoe." 

Still  there  are  millions  of  acres  that  under  no  condi- 
tions now  known  to  civilized  man  can  possibly  be  used 
for  any  other  purpose  than  for  grazing  stock.  Hence  its 
preservation  from  destruction,  that  it  may  continue  to 
furnish  its  portion  of  feed  for  the  western  stockmen's 
herds,  is  a  most  vital  problem  for  this  country. 

The  New  Era. — The  day  of  the  "all-year-round"  open 
range  business  has  almost  gone.  In  its  place  must  come 
a  proper  utilization  of  the  natural  forage,  supplemented 
by  the  crop  of  the  farmer  when,  through  drouth  in  sum- 
mer or  pitiless  storms  in  winter,  the  natural  grasses  and 
forage  cannot  be  obtained.  There  may  possibly  be  few- 
er but  better  cattle  and  sheep  under  these  conditions. 
There  will  be  more  wool  to  the  sheep  and  a  higher  grade, 
more  weight  to  each  steer  and  less  waste  in  long  horns 
and  legs,  fewer  cheap  horses  and  more  worth  $150,  and 
more  stockmen-farmers  with  great  haystacks  in  the  feed- 
yards  as  an  insurance  against  winter  losses. 

This  briefly  is  the  history  of  the  open  range  stock 
business  in  the  western  United  States.  First  came  the 


32 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


boom  days,  between  1877  and  1886,  and  then  a  period 
of  reaction  up  to  1890,  when  the  wool-growers  began  to 
gain  a  footing  on  the  range.  This  was  followed  by  a 
readjustment  of  the  business  to  common-sense  methods 
which,  while  bettering  the  industry  in  many  ways,  still 
lacks  somewhat  in  permanence  and  stability.  The  final 
touch  of  some  proper  Government  control  or  supervi- 
sion of  the  ranges  would  tend  to  place  the  industry  upon 
a  first-class  business  footing. 


The  Certain  flesult  of  Overgrazing. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS. 

In  the  phraseology  of  the  western  stock-raiser,  there 
are  two  distinct  ranges — the  southern  or  breeding  range, 
and  the  northern  or  finishing  range,  sometimes  called 
the  steer  range.  Broadly  speaking,  the  states  of.  Texas, 
Oklahoma,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  and  the  southern 
half  of  Colorado  constitute  the  southern  or  breeding 
range.  The  rest  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  states  form  the 
northern  or  finishing  range. 

After  the  great  die-off  in  1886  the  stockmen  of  the 
northern  range  practically  abandoned  the  raising  of 
calves  and  turned  their  attention  almost  wholly  to  the 
handling  of  steers.  The  long  cold  winters  were  not  well 
suited  to  the  raising  of  calves  under  open  range  condi- 
tions, but  the  quality  of  the  grasses  found  on  those 
ranges  gave  a  growth  and  finish  to  the  young  spindle- 
legged  steers  brought  up  from  the  southern  breeding 
ground  that  made  them  almost  equal  to  the  corn-fed  ar- 
ticle. 

The  Southern  Steer  Trade. — Thus  there  grew  up  a 
regular  trade  between  the  two  sections,  and  young  steers 
by  the  thousands  were  moved  northward  every  spring 
from  the  southern  ranges.  The  animals  began  their 
long  journey  in  the  cars,  but  owing  to  the  lack  of  rail- 
road facilities  the  majority  of  them  left  the  road  and 
finished  the  trip  on  foot. 

33 


34          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  was  for  several  years  a  great  point 
for  the  unloading  of  southern  steers  northward-bound, 
and  later  on  Orin  Junction,  through  the  extension  of  the 
tracks,  became  the  center  of  this  business.  Here  the 
steers,  thin  in  flesh  and  sore  from  their  rough  usage  in 
the  cars,  were  unloaded.  After  being  decorated  with 
their  new  owner's  brand — some  were  branded  in  the 
Denver  yards  as  they  passed  that  point — they  were 
started  out  on  the  trail  for  their  destination.  As  the 
shipments  were  generally  timed  to  bring  them  there  with 
the  early  spring  grass,  they  grazed  their  way,  picking 
up  in  flesh  from  the  day  they  started,  so  that  by  the 
time  they  reached  their  owners'  ranges  they  were  "on 
the  mend"  and  gaining  weight  rapidly. 

Steers  thus  brought  up  were  generally  kept  on  the 
range  for  one  winter  and  two  summers,  being  marketed 
the  second  fall.  Many  of  them,  however,  were  "double- 
wintered"  and  not  shipped  until  the  third  summer.  If 
the  season  had  been  a  good  one  this  class  of  steers  was 
eagerly  snapped  up  by  the  exporters  for  foreign  trade, 
being  considered  without  any  further  finishing  equal  in 
every  way  to  corn-fed  cattle.  Many  of  the  "single-win- 
tered" steers  were  alsg  taken  for  this  trade,  but  the 
larger  part  of  them  went  to  the  feedlots  of  the  cornbelt 
states  like  Illinois,  Iowa,  Indiana  and  Ohio.  Here  with 
a  short  season  of  corn  they  come  back  onto  the  market 
a  truly  finished  product. 

Southern  Steers  in  the  North. — At  the  beginning  of 
the  business  the  shipments  were  about  equally  divided 
between  yearlings  and  two-year-olds.  A  few  winters'  ex- 
perience, however,  satisfied  the  steermen  that  yearlings 
were  not  able  to  stand  the  first  winter  so  well  as  two- 
year-olds,  and  eventually  the  majority  of  the  shipments 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS  35 

were  confined  to  twos  and  threes.  The  manner  in  which 
these  young  southern  steers  "spread  out"  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  luxuriant  northern  grasses  was  surpris- 
ing. Steers  that  under  ordinary  conditions  in  the  South 
wrould  never  have  weighed  more  than  900  pounds  reached 
Chicago  tipping  the  beam  at  1,250  pounds.  The  writer 
has  seen  shipments  of  his  own  steers — miserable  little 
runty  affairs^  sent  up  from  Arizona,  unloaded  in  the 
Chicago  yards.  After  two  winters  in  Montana,  they  had 
become  great  full-ribbed  broad-backed  fellows  which  but 
for  the  brand  and  ear-mark  he  never  could  have  believed 
were  the  same  animals.  They  were  sold  in  Arizona  for 
$12.50  each  and  brought  in  Chicago  more  than  $75  per 
head,  netting  the  company  owning  them  about  $40  each. 
Once  they  reached  the  ranges  there  was  very  little  loss 
on  these  two-year-olds  from  either  weather  conditions 
or  other  causes.  The  most  severe  losses  were  incurred 
during  the  shipment  from  the  southern  ranges.  In  order 
to  reach  the  northern  ranges  early  enough  the  steers 
were  started  on  their  journey  in  April  and  May  when 
they  were  thin  and  weak.  If  cold  storms  were  encoun- 
tered on  the  road  the  cattle  were  easily  chilled,  and  died 
like  flies.  In  1894  one  shipment  which  I  recall  lost  25 
per  cent  of  the  bunch  one  night  in  the  Cheyenne  yards, 
owing  to  a  cold  sleety  rain  which  chilled  them  to  the  bone. 
Hundreds  died  even  with  plenty  of  hay  before  them 
Curtailment  of  Northern  Movement. — Since  1906  this 
trade  in  southern  steers  has  fallen  oi¥  to  a  very  great 
extent,  due  to  several  causes,  the  principal  one  being  the 
curtailment  of  the  open  ranges  in  the  North  through  va- 
rious reasons — settlers  and  the  inroads  of  the  sheepmen 
—until  the  annual  shipments  do  not  amount  to  one-fifth 
of  what  they  once  were. 


36          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Meantime  the  northern  cattleman  has  learned  that 
with  a  full  feedyard  at  his  elbow  he  too  can  raise  calves. 
The  larger  herds  are  gone,  but  there  are  thousands  of 
small  owners  who  have  gone  back  to  breeding  stock  and 
are  engaged  in  raising  a  superior  grade  of  cattle  for  their 
ranges. 

The  southern  breeders  now  have  found  another  out- 
let for  their  steers  in  the  corn-producing  states.  There 
land  in  some  sections  is  thought  to  be  too  high-priced 
to  raise  cattle  on,  and  the  farmers  find  it  cheaper  to  go 
west  and  buy  steers  as  yearlings  or  in  many  instances  as 
calves,  and  force  them  to  a  quick  finish  on  the  very  best 
of  beef-producing  materials. 

A  Southern  Lamb  Trade. — The  sheep  interests  in  the 
Southwestern  ranges  have  opened  up  a  trade  in  lambs 
which  on  the  whole  has  been  very  profitable.  The  lambs 
raised  there,  especially  in  New  Mexico,  were  found  to 
be  well  suited  for  winter  feeding.  The  lamb  feeders 
around  Fort  Collins,  Colo.,  and  other  points,  where  in 
recent  years  this  branch  of  the  business  has  grown  to 
the  dignity  of  a  great  industry,  were  quick  to  realize 
their  value.  Probably  three-quarters  of  a  million  lambs 
are  shipped  each  fall  frorn  New  Mexico  ranges  into  the 
western  lamb-feeding  districts  and  even  to  the  far  east- 
ern feedlots.  Their  good  health,  fine  feeding  qualities 
and  handy  weight  when  fed  makes  them  well  fitted  for 
market  feeding  purposes. 

The  feeding  is  principally  on  alfalfa  hay,  with  addi- 
tional rations  of  corn,  kafir  and  similar  grains.  On  a  well 
balanced  ration  of  Kansas  corn  and  plenty  of  alfalfa  the 
gains  in  weight  made  by  these  hardy  little  fellows  is 
remarkable.  They  come  into  the  markets  along  in  Feb- 
ruary, March  and  April,  just  at  a  time  when  there  is 


38  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

little  competition  from  other  sources  and  generally  bring 
the  top  prices.  Some  have  made  fortunes  for  their 
owners. 

Grasses  and  Forage  of  the  Southern  Range. — There 
are  two  distinct  types  of  range  in  both  these  great  di- 
visions of  the  West.  While  the  greater  part  of  the  south- 
ern range  is  what  is  known  as  desert  range,  there  is  also 
an  area  of  country  classed  as  mountain  range.  This 
latter  forms  probably  one-fifth  of  the  total  available 
range. 

On  the  desert  ranges,  which  lie  at  lower  altitudes, 
we  have  a  great  variety  of  stock  forage  with  compara- 
tively little  grass.  A  typical  desert  range  is  the  great 
stretch  of  country  in  southern  Arizona  lying  in  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Salt  and  Gila  Valleys.  This  range  is  gen- 
erally all  below  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet  and  lies  in  the 
region  of  long  hot  summers  and  cool  pleasant  winters. 
To  the  uninitiated  there  seems  to  be  but  little  feed  for 
stock  but,  given  the  usual  summer  rains,  which  should 
begin  in  early  July,  the  stockman  knows  his  herds  will 
not  suffer  for  feed.  With  the  summer  rains  come  a  rapid 
growth  of  weeds,  brush  and  other  forage  plants  upon 
which  the  stock  thrive.  < 

Mesquite  beans  (Prosopis)  furnish  feed  of  a  high 
nutritive  value,  and  it  is  a  strange  sight  to  see  the  cat- 
tle and  horses  eating  the  long  yellow  pods,  often  get- 
ting down  on  their  knees  to  reach  the  beans  lying  all 
over  the  ground  under  the  low-hanging  boughs  of  the 
trees.  Under  ordinary  climatic  conditions  there  are 
two  crops  a  year  of  mesquite  beans,  the  pods  of  which 
are  rich  in  nitrogen.  The  Indians  in  this  region  grind 
the  beans  into  flour  from  which  they  make  bread. 
Then  there  are  many  families  of  sage,  which  all  stock 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS  39 

appear  to  relish,  while  the  leaves  and  tender  branches 
of  the  mesquite  and  catclaw  (Acacia  Greggii)  and  the 
blossoms  and  fruit  of  the  Spanish  bayonet  (Yucca)  fur- 
nish no  small  part  of  the  available  forage. 

The  Alfileria  Plant. — If  the  season  is  a  good  one  here 
the  winter  rains  will  set  in  along  in  November  and  De- 
cember, and  by  the  first  of  February  the  alfileria  (Ero- 
dium  cicutarium)  will  begin  to  make  its  appearance  upon 
the  deserts  where  previously  there  seemed  to  be  noth- 
ing living.  From  a  surface  as  bare  of  vegetation  as  a 
floor,  this  splendid  forage  plant  will  spring  up  almost  in 
a  night.  Sheep  and  cattle  fatten  on  it  as  if  fed  alfalfa 
hay.  Alfileria  was  doubtless  introduced  into  this  south- 
ern region  through  the  migrating  sheep  from  California, 
where  it  has  been  known  for  many  years.  The  seeds 
hanging  to  the  wool  of  the  sheep  were  scattered  over  the 
ranges  and,  finding  a  climate  and  soil  peculiarly  well  fit- 
ted for  its  reception  and  growth,  it  spread  rapidly,  and 
now  covers  a  great  area  of  the  desert  ranges.  Alfileria 
also  is  known  as  "heron's  bill"  and  "pin  clover." 

The  plant  belongs  to  the  geranium  family,  has  a  little 
pink  star-like  blossom,  and  is  a  native  of  the  hot,  dry 
region  about  the  Mediterranean.  The  name  "Erodium"  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  word  "erodius,"  a  "heron,"  from 
a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  fruit  to  a  heron's  head  and 
bill.  With  plenty  of  moisture  it  grows  very  rapidly,  and 
in  six  weeks'  time  the  barren  desert  will  be  covered  with 
a  carpet  of  rich  green.  Having  reached  an  average  height 
of  from  6  to  10  inches  it  begins  to  cure,  and  in  six  weeks 
more  it  is  gone. 

The  change  from  bare  earth  to  green  and  back  to 
bare  earth  is  remarkable.  As  soon  as  it  ripens  and  dries, 
the  winds  break  it  off  at  the  ground  and  it  blows  into 


40  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

great  piles  much  like  tumble  weeds  in  the  open  plains 
further  north.  Arroyos  and  washes  will  be  filled  full 
to  the  top;  it  banks  up  against  trees  and  thickets  of 
greasewood  in  huge  windrows  and  in  a  short  time  disap- 
pears with  an  almost  magical  suddenness. 

Alfileria  thrives  best  on  a  decomposed  granite  soil,  and 
while  it  will  grow  above  3,500  feet  it  does  not  grow  tall 
enough  above  that  altitude  to  be  grazed  by  stock,  cling- 
ing very  closely  to  the  ground  and  forming  a  dense  green 
cover  which  furnishes  but  little  feed.  Contrary  to  gen- 
eral belief  the  cold  weather  does  not  kill  it  out,  as  the 
writer  has  seen  it  near  Las  Vegas,  N.  M.,  over  7,000  feet 
above  sea  level  growing  year  after  year  where  the  win- 
ter temperature  frequently  falls  to  10°  or  15°  below  zero. 
It  has  also  been  carried  by  sheep  into  northern  states — 
Idaho,  Utah  and  Montana — but  as  a  rule  does  nothing 
more  than  spread  over  the  ground  in  a  thick  close-cling- 
ing mat  of  green. 

Besides  this  there  are  many  weeds  peculiar  to  the 
region,  all  of  which  stock  like,  and  a  few  are  almost  equal 
to  alfileria  for  sheep  feed.  By  the  middle  of  April  the 
feed  begins  to  dry  up  on  the  desert,  and  the  stock  is 
moved  back  into  the  foothills  and  mountains. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  sheep  are  grazed  every 
winter  on  this  desert  feed,  and  every  spring  the  shipping 
of  lambs  from  this  region  to  the  eastern  market  reaches 
a  quarter  of  a  million  head. 

The  Semi-Desert  Range  of  the  South. — There  is  still 
another  type  of  desert  country  in  this  region  of  which  the 
San  Simon  Valley  in  southeastern  Arizona  is  a  fine  sam- 
ple. Beginning  in  the  neighborhood  of  Wilcox,  Ariz., 
this  range  stretches  east  into  New  Mexico  to  a  point 
about  halfway  between  Deming,  N.  M.,  and  El  Paso, 


Alfileria    (Erodium    cicutarium),    "Filaree." 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS  43 

Tex.  It  generally  lies  between  3,500  and  5,000  feet  ele- 
vation, and  is  characterized  by  open  prairie,  broken  here 
and  there  by  rough  mountains.  While  there  is  com- 
paratively little  surface  water  here,  well  water  can  be 
obtained  in  plenty  at  moderate  depths,  and  windmills  fur- 
nish watering  facilities  sufficient  for  all  the  stock. 

This  area  may  properly  be  classed  as  a  semi-desert 
country  with  considerable  grass,  mostly  the  gramas 
(Bouteloua)  and  species  of  Hilaria  known  variously  as 
Galleta  (guy-.et-ta),  black  bunch  grass  and  curly  mes- 
quite.  There  is  also  sacaton  (Sporobolus  airoides), 
sometimes  but  erroneously  called  salt  grass,  a*id  many 
varieties  of  sage  (Artemesia.)  There  is  an  immense 
growth  of  yucca  (Spanish  bayonet),  of  which  both  the 
flower  and  the  long  banana-like  fruit  are  greedily  eaten 
by  cattle.  In  the  foothills  there  are  several  varieties  of 
edible  bushes  like  Mountain  mahogany  (Cercocarpus) 
and  the  catclaw  and  mesquite  found  elsewhere. 

Owing  to  the  presence  in  many  portions  of  both 
these  desert  regions  of  a  grass  known  as  needle  or  dog- 
town  grass  (Aristida)  and  porcupine  grass  (Stipa 
spp.),  the  sharp  awns  of  each  of  which  work  into  the 
wool  and  finally  into  the  very  skin  of  the  animals,  sheep 
cannot  be  successfully  grazed  in  these  lower  desert 
ranges,  excepting  in  the  immediate  valley  of  the  Salt 
and  Gila  (He-la)  Rivers  and  north  of  them.  In  southern 
Arizona  I  have  seen  the  meat  from  sheep  killed  by  local 
butchers,  so  badly  inflamed  and  festered  by  the  sharp 
awns  of  these  grasses  as  to  be  unfit  for  use. 

Higher  Ranges  of  the  Southwest. — In  the  foothills 
and  mountain  ranges  of  the  Southwest  is  found  a  great 
variety  of  grasses  and  forage  plants.  These  ranges  gen- 
erally lie  about  the  5,000-foot  line  and,  as  elsewhere  all 


Galleta    (Hilaria   rigida),    Pronounced   Guy-et-ta. 


Needle  or  Dogtown  Grass   (Aristida  longiseta). 


Buffalo    Grass    (Bulbilis   dactyloides). 


Curly  or  Creeping  Mesquite  (Hilaria  cenchroides). 


Bermuda  Grass    (Capriola  dactylon). 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS  49 

over  the  West,  the  grama  is  the  most  valuable  and  stable 
of  all  the  grasses.  On  the  great  grassy  plains  of  Texas 
and  eastern  New  Mexico,  the  staked  plains  (El  Llano 
Estacado — Yah-no  Es-ta-cah-do)  of  the  olden  days,  the 
grama  is  the  prevailing  grass. 

The  staked  plains  were  so  called  because  of  the  story 
that  one  of  the  early  Spanish  exploring  expeditions  in 
western  Texas,  in  order  to  mark  their  trail,  placed  stakes 
at  intervals  along  certain  parts  of  their  route,  which  re- 
mained for  many  years  as  a  guide  to  travelers.  The  more 
likely  but  less  romantic  reason  is  that  vast  stretches  of 
the  plains  bear  great  quantities  of  the  Spanish  -bayonet 
(yucca)  whose  tall  pole-like  stalks  dry  out  and  look  like  a 
forest  of  fish  poles.  Seen  at  a  distance  these  yucca  stalks 
are  not  unlike  stakes,  hence  the  probability  of  the  origin 
of  the  name  from  this  cause. 

Southwestern  Grasses. — Here  too  is  found  the  buffalo 
grass  (Bulbilis  dactyloides)  and  the  curly  mesquite  (Hil- 
aria  cenchroides),  both  somewhat  similar  in  appearance 
and  characteristics  of  growth.  Buffalo  grass  may  easily 
be  known  from  the  ordinary  gramas,  for,  while  having 
the  same  peculiar  spikes  or  seed  heads,  it  is  alone  in  its 
peculiar  creeping  habits  with  little  rootlets  springing 
from  each  joint  much  as  does  the  Bermuda  grass  (Cap- 
riola  dactylon). 

There  is  an  immense  amount  of  misinformation  all 
over  the  West  among  stockmen  regarding  the  names  of 
these  common  grasses,  so  that  a  study  of  the  plates  show- 
ing them  should  repay  many  readers. 

Black  Grama  Grass. — Take  black  grama,  for  instance. 
Most  stockmen  apply  this  name  to  the  ordinary  grama 
which  is  most  prevalent  but  which  is  really  blue  grama 
(Bouteloua  oligostachya)  or  galleta  (gai-et-ta)  (hilaria). 


50  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Neither  of  these  is  the  true  black  grama.  Black  grama 
(Muhlenbergia  porteri)  is  found  on  a  rather  small  area 
of  the  Southwest,  being  confined  principally  to  the 
ranges  in  the  Gila  River  basin  in  southern  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona.  It  is  quite  unlike  any  of  the  other  gramas 
and  once  seen  need  never  be  mistaken  for  one  of  them. 
It  grows  from  a  single  root  and  flourishes  best  beneath 
trees  and  shrubs  which  protect  it  from  destruction,  and 
in  such  an  environment  it  sometimes  reaches  a  height  of 
three  feet,  climbing  up  through  the  sage  brush  like  a 
vine.  The  stems  and  leaves  are  quite  dark,  almost  black; 
the  seed  heads  are  entirely  different  from  the  other 
gramas  and  the  grass  is  a  rather  soft  delicate  plant. 

It  was  originally  a  common  plant  in  the  region  men- 
tioned, and  was  one  of  the  main  sources  of  hay  for  the 
Government  military  posts  in  southern  Arizona.  At  Camp 
Thomas  on  the  Gila  and  Forts  Bowie  and  Grant  in  south- 
ern Arizona  in  1879  and  1880  I  saw  hundreds  of  tons  of 
this  grass  delivered  to  the  various  post  quartermasters 
as  hay  at  prices  varying  from  $25  to  $50  and  sometimes 
more  a  ton.  A  large  amount  of  this  was  hoe-cut  hay  and 
advertisements  calling  for  bids  for  Government  contracts 
frequently  specified  hre-cut  hay. 

This  was  because  hay  cut  that  way  was  cleaner  and 
of  better  growth  than  when  cut  by  scythes  or  sickles, 
for  machines  were  practically  unknown  in  that  region  at 
that  time.  To  procure  hoe-cut  hay  a  wagon  was  driven 
across  the  range  and  the  Mexicans,  each  armed  with  the 
common  heavy  Mexican  or  planter's  hoe,  worked  on  each 
side  of  it.  They  simply  chopped  off  the  plant  at  the 
roots,  not  infrequently  getting  deep  into  the  ground, 
for  that  made  the  hay  weigh  more.  The  hay  was  thrown 
onto  the  wagon  and  five  or  six  men  could  accumulate  a 


Blue  Grama  Grass  (Bouteloua  oligostachya). 


Hairy  Grama   Grass   (Bouteloua  vestita). 


Black   Grama   Grass    (Muhlenbergia    Porteri). — [From    a   photo   loaned    by 
Prof.  J.  J.  Thornber,  Tucson,  Ariz.] 


54  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

load  in  a  very  short  time  by  this  primitive  and  waste- 
ful method. 

Where  wagons  could  not  work,  burros  and  horses 
were  used,  and  the  grass  was  packed  on  their  backs.  Not 
infrequently  the  Mexicans  and  Indians  brought  the  hay 
in  on  their  own  backs  tied  up  into  great  bundles  with 
soap  weed  strings  (yucca.)  I  saw  a  Mexican  or  an 
Apache  Indian  woman  pack  150  pounds  of  this  hay  at  the 
scales,  with  her  baby's  basket  on  top  of  the  load.  The 
hay  was  swung  from  her  forehead  by  a  flat  strap  fastened 
to  the  soap  weed  strings.  Under  such  methods  of  har- 
vesting it  is  not  singular  that  the  black  grama  is  an 
almost  extinct  species  at  the  present  time,  and  I  fancy 
that  it  would  take  many  days  to  find  a  ton  of  it  now 
where  they  formerly  gathered  it  by  the  hundred  tons. 

Sacaton. — There  are  great  areas  along  the  rivers  and 
in  the  alkali  lands  which  grow  a  fine  crop  of  sacaton 
(Sporobolus),  sometimes,  but  erroneously  called  salt 
grass.  Sacaton  (sac-ah-tone)  starts  very  early  in  the 
spring  and  while  young  is  relished  by  all  classes  of  stock. 
It  grows  rapidly,  however,  and  in  six  weeks  becomes  so 
rank  as  to  lose  its  good  qualities.  Its  greatest  value  is 
as  an  early  grass  for  larrtbing  or  before  other  feed  is  up, 
and  it  also  makes  fine  hay  when  cut  at  the  right  period 
of  growth. 

Sacaton  will  stand  an  immense  amount  of  hard  usage 
and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  injure  it  by  either  over- 
grazing or  trampling.  I  have  seen  a  herd  rounded  up 
on  a  sacaton  flat  for  several  days  at  a  time,  and  milled 
and  worked  over  the  ground  until  it  was  trampled  into 
a  dust  heap.  As  soon  as  the  rains  began,  however,  the 
green  shoots  came  up  from  the  hardy  roots  and  in  a  few 
days  there  was  apparently  as  good  a  stand  as  ever.  The 


Sacaton    (Sporobolus  airoides),   Sometimes   Called  Salt   Grass. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS  57 

true  salt  grass  of  this  region  is  Distichlis  spicata,  a  light 
soft-feeling  grass  seldom  more  than  6  inches  in  height 
and  of  no  great  feeding  value.  It  also  is  a  very  tough, 
hardy  grass. 

The  Sages. — These  two  grasses,  grama  and  sacaton, 
are  the  principal  ones  of  the  foothill  region,  but  the  for- 
age is  greatly  augmented  by  the  great  sage  family,  es- 
pecially the  sweet  sage  or  "winter  fat"  (Eurotia  lanata), 
which  furnishes  an  unequaled  feed  for  stock,  especially 
sheep  and  horses.  There  are  many  varieties  of  sage  in 
the  southern  ranges,  nearly  every  one  of  which  is  eaten 
by  stock  of  every  class.  Salt  sage  (Atriplex)"  is  the  one 
most  generally  called  by  the  generic  name  sage  by  stock- 
men all  over  the  West.  There  is  another  favorite  forage 
bush  known  as  shad  scale  (Atriplex  canescens)  called  esta- 
fi-etta  by  the  Mexican  herders.  To  the  ordinary  observ- 
er it  would  seem  to  be  absolutely  worthless,  but  it  is 
eagerly  eaten  by  all  stock,  especially  sheep.  It  furnishes 
a  great  supply  of  dry  husk-like  seeds  which  the  sheep 
lick  up  from  the  ground,  and  even  crawl  on  their  knees 
under  the  bushes  in  order  to  get  them. 

Greasewood  (Sarcobatus  vermiculatus)  is  another 
favorite  browse  well  liked  by  most  range  animals. 

Prickly  Pear  (Opuntia). — In  the  foothills  of  this  re- 
gion prickly  pear  furnishes  an  article  of  diet  for  the  cat- 
tle that  in  times  of  feed  scarcity  has  saved  many  an  old 
cow.  In  feeding  it,  the  stockmen  go  out  on  the  ranges 
armed  with  pitchforks  and  axes.  By  means  of  a  lighted 
torch  or  a  forkful  of  weeds,  bear  grass  or  yucca  leaves, 
the  sharp  needles  are  singed  off  the  broad  leaves  of  the 
pears  and  then  the  plant  is  cut  up  with  the  axe  and 
pitched  to  the  cattle.  Two  men  can  thus  feed  a  good 
many  poor  cows  in  a  day  and  while  it  acts  on  the  bowels 


58  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

with  considerable  effect  the  cattle  thrive  on  it.  It  is  as- 
tonishing how  quickly  range  cattle  catch  onto  what  is 
being  done,  following  the  men  with  the  torches  and  burn- 
ing materials  and  waiting  for  it  to  be  thrown  to  them. 
In  southwestern  Texas  dairymen  feed  it  regularly  to 
their  milk  cows  with  good  results. 

Spineless  varieties  of  the  opuntia  can  be  grown  as  any 
forage  plant  and  furnishes  a  remarkable  amount  of  feed 
On  irrigated  land  25  tons  per  acre  have  been  grown  and 
harvested.  Although  advertised  as  a  potent  factor  in 
securing  some  new  range  forage  plant,  the  spineless  cac- 
tus is  not  at  all  adapted  to  use  on  the  open  range.  Its 
spineless  character  makes  it  an  easy  prey  to  rabbits  and 
other  rodents  as  well  as  grazing  stock,  hence  if  planted 
it  must  be  carefully  protected  and  looked  after.  Also 
any  temperature  below  20  degrees,  if  continued  for  sev- 
eral nights  will  kill  it. 

Feeding  Mistletoe. — In  the  Southwest  the  mistletoe 
which  is  found  so  extensively  clinging  to  trees  on  the 
ranges,  especially  the  oaks  and  mesquites,  has  been  util- 
ized by  the  stockmen  as  a  hard-times  feed  when  other 
forage  was  scarce.  The  stockman  armed  with  a  long 
slender  pole,  to  the  end  o'f  which  is  attached  an  iron  hook, 
reaches  up  into  the  trees,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  hook  the 
mistletoe  branches  are  easily  broken  off,  as  they  are  very 
brittle.  The  cattle  feed  on  it  eagerly,  following  the  men 
from  tree  to  tree  and  watching  for  the  branches  to  drop. 
An  analysis  of  the  plant  shows  that  it  possesses  feeding 
value  comparing  favorably  with  timothy  hay.  Manv  cat- 
tlemen believe  that  if  fed  to  cows  about  to  calve  or  just 
having  calved,  it  will  cause  them  to  "clean"  more  readily 
than  otherwise. 

In  southern  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  western  Texas 


Service   Berry    (AmeliancMer  alnifolia). 


Mountain  Mahogany  (Cercocarpus  parvifolius). 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS  61 

mistletoe  grows  so  profusely  that  it  is  an  easy  matter  for 
one  man  to  feed  a  great  many  cattle  in  one  day  on  this 
plant.  Incidentally  he  is  removing  a  very  harmful  para- 
site from  the  trees. 

Mountain  Forage. — Going  up  into  the  mountains  of 
this  region,  we  find  many  varieties  of  grasses  and  plants. 
Here  the  gramas  are  still  plentiful,  while  there  is  a  fes- 
tuca  locally  called  pine  or  white  bunch  grass  (Festuca 
arizonica),  wild  oats  (Avena  fatua),  timothy  (Phleum 
pratense),  wild  rye  (Elymus  canadensis),  and  the  blue 
stem  (Andropogon).  Besides  these  grasses  there  are 
many  varieties  of  weeds,  lupines  and  other  edible  forage 
plants,  all  of  which  are  greedily  eaten  by  sheep.  In  fact, 
in  the  higher  mountain  ranges  everywhere  the  sheep  eat 
far  more  of  the  class  of  plants  commonly  called  weeds 
than  they  do  of  the  grasses. 

In  addition  to  these  grasses  and  weeds  there  are  many 
varieties  of  browse  in  the  higher  mountains  upon  which 
stock  feeds.  In  the  foothills  the  tender  shoots  of  the 
scrub  oak  (Quercus  undulata)  (Q.  gambelii)  are  eaten 
by  cattle  in  the  early  spring,  but  if  fed  on  too  long  they 
are  very  injurious,  causing  death  in  a  short  time  from 
the  tannic  acid  contained  in  the  leaves. 

The  buck  brush  (Cowania  mexicana),  also  called  qui- 
nine bush,  service  berry  (Amelanchier),  mountain 
mahogany  (Cercocarpus),  and  sages,  all  furnish  a  large 
amount  of  excellent  forage  for  sheep,  cattle,  goats  and 
horses.  The  Mexican  sheep  herders  apply  the  word 
"chamiza"  to  a  browse  range. 

The  Northern  Desert  Ranges. — There  is  another  type 
of  desert  range  which  lies  at  a  higher  altitude  than  the 
two  already  described.  The  best  example  of  this  range 
is  found  in  the  famous  Red  Desert  of  southwestern  Wyo- 


62 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


ming.  The  deserts  of  Nevada,  Utah,  some  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia and  in  fact  all  of  those  states  lying  within  the 
great  intermountain  region  of  the  Rockies  and  east  of  the 
crest  of  the  Sierras,  have  very  much  the  same  general 
characteristics,  so  that  a  brief  description  of  the  Red  Des- 
ert will  cover  them  all.  There  are,  however,  many  vari- 
eties of  forage  plants  and  browses  which  are  not  found 


Semi-Desert   Sage  Range  in  Wyoming. 

generally  elsewhere  and  are  peculiar  to  the  Red  Desert 
region. 

The  Red  Desert  lies  generally  at  an  elevation  of  7,000 
feet  and  consists  of  a  high,  undulating  plain,  broken 
more  or  less  by  low  ranges  of  hills,  with  very  little  sur- 
face water  and  still  less  beneath  the  surface.  The  stock 
which  uses  this  range  depends  almost  entirely  upon  the 
winter  snows  for  water,  and  therefore  the  region  is  most 
valuable  as  a  winter  range. 

While  there  are  some  herds  of  cattle  on  this  range, 
it  is  the  ideal  winter  resort  for  the  sheepman,  and  it  is 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS  63 

hard  to  say  which  is  of  the  most  value  to  the  large  sheep- 
owner,  the  summer  ranges  in  the  mountains  or  the  win- 
ter ranges  on  these  deserts.  The  small  sheepman  who 
has  his  farm  on  which  he  can  grow  feed  to  winter  his 
sheep  depends  more  upon  the  summer  range  for  a  suc- 
cessful issue  of  his  sheep  venture.  To  the  big  owners, 
the  men  who  graze  their  sheep  by  the  tens  of  thousands, 
and  cannot  excepting  in  the  most  urgent  cases  be  pre- 
pared to  feed  hay,  the  winter  ranges  are  most  vitally  im- 
portant. 

These  deserts  are  the  typical  sage-brush  areas.  Here 
the  sage  and  salt  bushes  are  almost  the  sole  feed.  There 
are  many  species  of  grasses  and  weeds  but  the  great  de- 
pendence of  the  stockmen,  especially  sheep-owners,  is 
the  sages  and  the  varieties  of  the  salt  sage,  of  which 
Atriplex  nutallii  or  (A.  volutaris)  is  the  most  common. 
This  sage  (A.  volutaris)  is  also  called  tumble  weed  in 
some  localities,  but  further  south  the  tumble  weed  is 
Amaranthus  blitoides.  The  Russian  thistle  (Salsola 
tragus)  is  also  commonly  called  tumble  weed.  Shad 
scale  (Atriplex  canescens)  is  also  found  in  great  quan- 
tities here,  together  with  bud  or  button  sage  (Artemisia 
spinescens).  This  latter  is  an  especially  valuable  browse 
because  of  its  early  growth. 

Sheep,  especially  young  sheep,  are  apt  to  get  sore 
mouths  from  eating  this  class  of  forage,  as  the  spiny 
twigs,  and  in  button  sage  the  cactus-like  needles,  cut  the 
interior  lining  of  the  lips  and  mouth.  They  soon  get  over 
this,  however,  if  given  a  change  of  feed  for  a  few  days, 
and  gradually  the  mouth  hardens  until  no  bad  effects 
follow  its  eating. 

The  sheepmen  range  their  herds  on  these  deserts  all 
winter,  watering  on  snow  banks  when  no  other  method 


64  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

is  available,  and  utilizing  tanks  and  small  surface  lakes 
whenever  possible.  The  low  ranges  of  hills  that  cross 
the  region  furnish  enough  protection  from  storms,  and 
under  ordinary  conditions  the  herds  winter  on  this  sort 
of  feed  and  come  out  in  the  spring  fat  and  healthy. 

Occasionally  there  will  be  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  which 
lies  on  the  ground  for  some  time,  and  if  it  lasts  too  long 
severe  losses  result.  Sometimes  the  snowfall  is  too  great 
to  allow  moving  the  herds,  and  if  hay  cannot  be  hauled 
in  to  them  from  the  railroads  the  herders  are  helpless. 
Unusually  wet  winters,  which  make  the  deserts  muddy 
and  soft,  are  also  drawbacks  which  the  sheepmen  have 
to  face.  Fortunately  these  conditions  are  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule,  and  generally  the  winters  on  these 
deserts  are  passed  with  comparatively  little  loss. 

The  Northern  Range. — Strictly  speaking  the  ranges 
of  the  Red  Desert  class  should  be  included  in  the  north- 
ern ranges,  as  they  all  lie  north  of  the  latitude  of  Den- 
ver, Colo.,  which  may  be  taken  as  fairly  dividing  the 
two  regions.  However,  when  the  northern  ranges  are 
spoken  of  it  is  generally  meant  to  include  those  great 
stretches  of  prairie  and  upland  country  lying  in  Eastern 
Oregon,  Washington, 'Montana,  the  Dakotas,  western 
Nebraska,  large  portions  of  Wyoming  and  Idaho,  and 
the  whole  mountainous  regions  of  the  Rockies  north  of 
Denver. 

The  grasses  of  these  regions  seem  to  have  certain 
fattening  and  growing  qualities  not  to  be  found  else- 
where. The  steers  shipped  there  from  the  South  seem 
to  spread  out  and  gain  in  flesh  more  rapidly  than  if  fed 
the  best  of  hay. 

The  principal  grasses  are  the  bunch  grasses  of  the 
wheat-grass  group  (Agropyron),  prairie  June  grass 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS  65 

(Koeleria  cristata)  and  blue  joints  (Andropogon  spp.). 
These  latter  species  are  the  well-known  western  prairie 
grasses,  of  which  A.  hallii  is  the  most  common  grass  in 
the  sandhill  region  of  western  Nebraska. 

There  appears  to  be  much  confusion  as  to  the  use  of 
the  local  names  blue  stem  and  blue  joint,  which  are  va- 
riously applied  to  Agropyron,  Andropogon  and  Calama- 
grostis.  After  consultation  with  some  of  the  best  au- 
thorities on  grasses,  and  carefully  sifting  all  available 
information,  these  local  names  have  been  placed  as  fol- 
lows:  Western  wheat  grasses  (Agropyron  spp.),  called 
blue  stem  from  the  light  blue  color  of  the  leaves  and 
stems.  This  is  found  in  the  Pacific  Coast  states  and  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region  and  makes  excellent  hay.  West- 
ern prairie  grasses  (Andropogon  and  Calamagrostis), 
called  blue  joint  from  the  blue  or  purplish  blue  coloring 
of  each  joint.  This  is  found  in  the  middle  western 
states,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  the  Dakotas  and  the 
prairie  states  generally.  Most  of  the  prairie  hay  put  up 
throughout  this  region  is  blue  joint.  Johnson  grass  and 
sorghum  belong  to  the  Andropogon  group. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  gramas  (Bouteloua),  as  well 
as  buffalo  grass  (Bulbilis  dactyloides),  are  found  in 
abundance  on  the  northern  ranges,  together  with  every 
variety  of  edible  shrub,  like  the  service  berry,  mountain 
mahogany,  sages,  buck  brush  and  that  class  of  forage 
plants.  In  the  higher  mountains  the  same  riotous 
growth  of  grasses  and  weeds  is  found  as  in  the  southern 
mountains,  although  alfileria,  while  found  here,  is  not  so 
abundant  nor  does  it  grow  so  luxuriously  as  in  the 
Southwest. 

Features  of  Northern  Range. — There  are  several  fea- 
tures of  the  northern  ranges  worthy  of  especial  mention. 


66          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

The  first  will  be  found  in  those  great  high  ranges  of  the 
Rockies,  in  most  cases  away  up  above  timber  line.  Cat- 
tle will  seldom  occupy  of  their  own  accord  a  range  so 
high  as  this,  but  for  developing  lambs  these  ranges  are 
unequaled.  The  season  is  short,  seldom  lasting  over 
three  months,  but  the  green  feed  that  comes,  almost 
from  under  the  retreating  snow  banks,  is  unusually 
good,  and  furnishes  the  ewes  with  great  quantities  of 
rich  milk,  while  the  little  fellows  quickly  learn  to  eat  the 
weeds  and  grasses  of  the  range  and  grow  at  a  tremen- 
dous rate. 

In  Colorado,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Tennessee  Pass  of 
the  Rockies,  thousands  of  aged  sheep,  generally  wethers 
from  Utah,  Oregon,  Idaho  and  those  states  raising  the 
heavy  mutton  breeds,  are  shipped  in  on  the  railroad  by 
speculators  on  a  feed-in-transit  rate.  They  are  unloaded 
about  July  1,  and  on  the  superb  feed  found  in  those  high 
ranges  lying  mostly  above  timber-line  they  put  on  fat 
very  rapidly.  They  are  generally  reloaded  and  go  for- 
ward to  the  large  eastern  markets  early  in  September. 
These  high  ranges  are  for  the  most  part  so  located  as 
to  be  practically  inaccessible  except  by  shipping  in  on 
the  railroad,  hence  they  cannot  be  utilized  to  any  extent 
by  the  local  sheepmen. 

The  second  feature  is  those  open  prairie-like  areas 
known  as  parks.  These  are  found  all  over  the  region, 
especially  in  Colorado  where  such  splendid  examples  of 
them  as  the  famous  North  Park  and  South  Park  are 
noteworthy.  The  parks  lie  generally  at  an  average  ele- 
vation of  between  5,000  and  7,000  feet  and  are  practically 
free  from  timber,  although  it  surrounds  them  on  all  sides. 

The  grasses  are  mostly  gramas  (Bouteloua)  and 
varieties  of  the  wheat  grasses,  with  much  blue  stem 


CL 


Prairie  June  Grass   (Koeleria  cristata). 


Bluestem  or  Western  Wheatgrass   (Agropyron   smithii). 


Mountain  Bunch  Grass  (Festuca  viridula). 


70  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

(Agropyron  smithii),  and  in  the  northwest  Mountain 
bunch  grass  (Festuca  viridula),  the  latter  seldom  being 
found  below  6,000  feet.  These  parks,  excepting  for  the 
surrounding  timber,  are  similar  in  appearance  and  forage 
covering  to  those  great  rolling  prairies  in  the  higher  por- 
tions of  eastern  New  Mexico  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
Texas  staked  plains. 

Then  we  have  the  mountain  meadows,  found  all  over 
the  country.  These  are  especially  fine  in  the  higher 
regions  of  the  Sierras  in  California,  where  they  furnish 
a  majority  of  the  mountain  feeding  grounds.  These  Cali- 
fornia meadows  lie  at  great  elevations,  generally  over 
6,000  feet  and  on  up  to  perpetual  snow.  They  are  cov- 
ered with  a  short  wiry  but  nutritious  grass  known  locally 
as  short-hair  grass  (Calamagrostis  brewerii),  which  will 
stand  an  immense  amount  of  grazing  without  being  com- 
pletely killed  out.  This  grass  never  grows  very  high 
but  when  eaten  down  it  comes  up  again  with  amazing 
rapidity. 

In  the  Rockies  the  feed  on  these  high  meadows  is  of 
great  variety.  White  clover  and  Kentucky  bluegrass 
(Poa  pratensis)  are  found  in  abundance  in  the  more 
moist  places,  while  gramas  and  bunch  grasses  grow  in 
great  luxuriance.  This  together  with  a  profusion  of 
weeds  and  forage  plants  which  seem  very  attractive  to 
sheep  furnishes  feed  for  a  large  number  of  stock.  Such 
areas  should  never  be  grazed  too  early,  lest  the  cutting 
of  the  soft  soil  injure  the  ground  cover  and  eventually 
ruin  the  entire  meadow. 

In  some  of  the  California  mountains  these  meadows 
constitute  all  the  stock  range  available.  They  lie  in  the 
most  inaccessible  places,  surrounded  by  great  granite 
mountains,  bare  of  timber.  To  reach  them  the  stock  is 


Across  Swaying  Bridges  Above  Swift  Mountain  Streams. — Above:     Bridge  Built  to 

Cross  Sheep   Over  the  Boise  River  in  Idaho.     Below:     Bridge  for  Sheep 

Across  Black's  Fork,   Utah,   TJinta  National  Forest. 


72  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

taken  over  rough  trails  and  across  swaying  bridges 
above  swift  mountain  streams  where  to  the  novice  noth- 
ing less  than  a  goat  could  be  made  to  go.  For  the  short 
time  in  which  they  can  be  used  they  support  a  tremen- 
dous number  of  stock,  and  the  saving  grace  in  it  all  is 
that  very  point — the  short  season.  Otherwise  they 
would  long  ago  have  been  worn  out  and  ruined  beyond 
hope. 

Spring  Ranges. — In  the  Southwest  and  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  they  have  a  range  known  as  the  spring  range. 
One  of  the  best  types  of  this  spring  range  is  the  foot- 
hill region  along  the  Sierras  back  of  the  great  San 
Joaquin  plains  in  southern  California.  These  ranges  are 
invaluable  to  sheepmen  as  lambing  grounds,  and  to  cat- 
tlemen for  their  early  beef.  Given  a  good  winter  with 
the  average  amount  of  rainfall,  and  early  in  March  these 
ranges  come  out  in  the  most  attractive  green.  The  feed 
for  the  most  part  is  foxtail  (Hordeum  murinum),  bronco 
grass  (Bromus  rubens),  poverty  grass  (Aristida'  rever- 
choni)  and  of  course  alfileria  (Erodium  spp.). 

None  of  these  grasses  has  any  great  feeding  value 
once  they  are  ripe,  careful  analysis  showing  them  devoid 
of  fat  and  muscle-producing  elements.  But  when  green 
they  are  splendid  forage  plants  and  stock  thrives  on 
them,  putting  on  fat  very  rapidly.  The  carrying  capacity 
of  these  spring  ranges  is  great,  owing:  to  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  plants  .grow  when  fed  off.  When  drv 
foxtail  is  a  pest,  but  green  it  is  great  feed.  In  California 
they  sav  that  it  was  orieinally  brought  into  the  countrv 
from  Australia  with  a  shipment  of  sheep.  Since  then 
it  has  spread  rapidly,  and  once  it  takes  a  range  no 
amount  of  grazing  seems  to  hurt  it.  nor  does  it  give  wav 
to  any  other  plant  but  rather  chokes  out  even  so  good 


Bluegrass   (Poa  pretensis). 


Foxtail    (Hardeum    murinum). 


Bronco  Grass   (Bromus  rubens). 


Festuca  myuros   (sometimes  called  Poverty  grass). 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS 


77 


a  grower  as  the  alfileria.  This  is  noticeable  on  the  San 
Joa'quin  plains,  where  in  the  last  fifteen  years  the  old- 
timers  say  it  has  almost  completely  run  out  alfileria  on 
some  ranges. 

These  spring  ranges  come  quickly  and  go  as  rapidly 
as  they  came.  By  the  end  of  June  they  are  dry  and  yel- 
low, and  the  feed  is  gone  for  the  season. 

Carrying  Capacity  of  Ranges. — It  is  impossible  to 
give  any  hard  and  fast  rule  for  estimating  the  carry- 
ing capacity  of  the  western  ranges.  Much  depends  of 
course  on  the  character  of  the  soil,"  the  annual  rainfall 
and  the  slope  of  the  country,  whether  to  the  south  or 
the  north.  A  range  facing  to  the  south  and  east  will 
generally  be  two  to  three  weeks  earlier  than  one  which 
lies  to  the  north  or  west.  Also  the  kinds  of  forage  plants 
found  upon  the  range  must  be  considered,  as  well  as  the 
watering  facilities  for  the  animals  that  are  to  use  it. 

Horses  the  Worst  Grazers. — Based  upon  their  use  of 
the  range,  horses  are  the  worst  grazers  we  have.  This 
is  due  to  their  habit  of  traveling  long  distances  to  water 
and  feed,  often  at  very  high  speeds,  their  playfulness  on 
the  range  and  the  fact  that  a  horse  can  and  does  graze 
a  range  very  closely,  possibly  even  closer  than  a  sheep. 
A  bunch  of  horses  in  good  spirits  will  race  and  romp 
over  the  range  for  hours  at  a  time,  cutting  up  the  sod 
with  their  feet,  chasing  the  cattle  away  from  the  water 
holes  and  salting  grounds,  running  over  little  calves  and 
in  this  manner  often  doing  more  damage  than  thev  do  bv 
feeding.  A  stockman  taking  horses  for  pasture  will 
charge  more  for  that  class  of  stock  than  for  any  other, 
and  on  account  of  it  some  will  not  receive  them  for  pas- 
ture at  all. 

Mules   also   do   great   damage   among   stock  on   the 


78  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

range,  chasing  little  calves  and  colts  until  they  drop 
down  exhausted,  when  the  mule  will  perhaps  trample 
them  to  death.  This  I  have  seen  happen  over  and  over 
again  on  western  ranges  where  the  Mexicans  and  Indians 
raised  a  great  many  mules.  The  mules  unquestionably 
do  this  in  play,  but  the  effect  on  the  young  things  is 
quite  as  bad  as  if  done  with  malicious  intent.  In  some 
regions  where  owners  have  persisted  in  turning  out 
mules  to  graze  on  the  ranges,  owners  took  the  matter 
into  their  own  hands  and  the  animals  were  killed  as  a 
matter  of  protection. 

Range  for  Cattle. — In  estimating  the  carrying  capac- 
ity of  a  range,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  a  fair  ratio  be- 
tween cattle  and  sheep  is  one  to  five;  that  is,  a  range 
which  will  support  one  cow  will  support  five  sheep. 
In  feedlots  it  is  generally  admitted  that  the  same 
amount  of  feed  which  will  support  one  cow  will  take 
care  of  eight  sheep.  This  is  due  of  course  to  a  closer 
cleaning  up  of  the  feed  by  the  sheep. 

On  many  of  the  desert  ranges  it  will  probably  require 
100  acres  to  the  animal  to  carry  cattle  the  year  around, 
while  in  the  mountain  ranges,  where  feed  grows  rapidly 
and  there  is  a  great  variety  of  it,  probably  ten  to  fifteen 
acres  is  sufficient.  In  Texas  on  the  staked-plains  ranges 
they  estimate  that  one  cow  or  steer  will  require  ten 
acres  for  year-around  purposes,  while  on  the  eastern 
New  Mexico  ranges,  where  the  sod  is  not  so  good, 
twenty-five  to  thirty  acres  are  necessary  to  keep  the 
range  from  being  overgrazed  and  damaged.  This  is  of 
course  for  year  after  year.  In  some  seasons,  due  to  un- 
usual precipitation,  the  feed  grows  so  fast  and  there  is 
so  much  of  it  that  a  cow  to  every  five  acres  will  not  be- 
gin to  eat  it  off. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  RANGE  BUSINESS  79 

On  the  prairies  of  western  Kansas  and  Nebraska  they 
estimate  that  for  year-around  purposes  between  fifty 
and  sixty  head  to  the  section  (640  acres)  is  about  the 
right  number  to  keep  the  animals  in  good  flesh  and 
not  overgraze  the  land.  If  used  only  in  the  summer  sea- 
son when  the  feed  is  growing  rapidly  the  carrying  capac- 
ity is  greater  than  these  figures  indicate. 

On  the  sheep  ranges  in  the  higher  mountains  of  Utah, 
Idaho  and  the  rest  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  states  dur- 
ing the  summer  season,  which  is  short — not  over  four 
months  on  an  average — the  ranges  will  and  do  carry 
as  many  as  a  sheep  to  the  acre  without  being  6vergrazed. 
As  a  general  thing,  however,  a  sheep  to  every  2y2  acres 
is  the  safest  rule.  This  of  course  must  vary  with  the 
quality  of  the  range. 

Goats  eat  so  much  brush  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
make  a  fair  estimate  of  the  capacity  of  a  goat  range,  un- 
less one  goes  over  it  carefully  and  notes  the  stand  of  the 
brush. 

The  accessibility  of  water  is  also  a  great  factor,  be- 
cause if  stock  must  travel  long  distances  to  and  from 
water  it  not  only  tramples  out  a  certain  amount  of  feed 
but  takes  time  which  should  be  used  in  grazing.  One 
of  the  best  ways  to  estimate  the  capacity  of  a  range  is 
to  take  a  look  at  the  stock  at  the  end  of  the  grazing 
season.  Fat  sheep  and  cattle  will  not  be  found  on  an 
overgrazed  range.  The  instant  they  are  forced  to  graze 
the  feed  closely,  and  take  the  rougher  and  unpalatable 
portions  of  the  forage,  that  instant  they  begin  to  fall  off, 
and  if  kept  there  for  any  length  of  time  both  stock  and 
range  will  tell  their  own  story. 

There  are  many  grasses  and  forage  plants  which 
stock  will  not  graze  closely,  some  which  they  will 


80  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

only  graze  when  young  and  tender,  and  some  which 
look  to  be  good  feed  but  which  nothing  will  touch. 
Thus  if  one  looks  only  at  the  amount  of  feed  left  on  the 
range,  unless  he  is  well  acquainted  with  that  particular 
range  and  its  grasses,  he  may  be  misled.  Sheep  are  great 
weed-eaters.  .  The  Minnesota  experiment  station  found 
that  out  of  480  weeds  in  that  state  sheep  ate  no  less  than 
430  of  them.  This  fact  should  always  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  looking  over  ranges,  because  a  range 
may  have  very  little  grass  and  still  be  a  splendid  sheep 
range. 

In  handling  sheep  it  is  well  to  remember  that  1,000 
ewes  and  their  lambs  will  not  do  so  much  harm  to  the 
feed  and  range  as  1,000  dry  ewes  or  wethers.  The  latter 
classes  roam  about,  do  not  graze  quietly  and  generally 
graze  in  closer  formation,  thus  wearing  out  the  range 
more  than  the  ewes  and  lambs  do. 

The  fact  that  a  certain  area  will  support  1,000  sheep 
or  500  cattle  for  six  months  does  not  mean  that  it  will 
carry  twice  that  number  of  either  kind  for  half  the 
time.  The  growth  of  the  feed  during  the  grazing  period 
is  overlooked  if  this  be  done,  as  well  as  the  natural 
trampling  due  to  overcrowding. 


CHAPTER  III. 

COMING  OF  THE  SETTLER. 

Coming  of  the  Settler. — With  the  close  of  the  civil 
war  the  settlement  of  the  region  west  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  rivers  really  began  in  earnest.  The  pre- 
emption law  of  1841  and  the  homestead  law  of  1862 
offered  great  inducements  to  men  to  move  out  onto  the 
prairies  and  take  up  homes.  Later  on  came  the  various 
soldiers'  scrip  laws,  which  gave  to  veterans  of  the  war  a 
certain  amount  of  land  without  residence  of  any  great 
length  of  time  or  other  delays. 

Extension  of  Holdings. — Still  later  came  the  timber 
culture  bill  and  the  measure  for  settling  up  desert  lands, 
known  as  the  desert  land  law,  which  allowed  every  per- 
son an  additional  640  acres,  making  a  total  of  about  1,200 
acres  of  land  which  under  the  law  one  man  could  legally 
obtain  from  the  government.  Besides  these  the  stone 
and  timber  act,  the  various  land  and  scrip  laws  and  the 
mining  laws  offered  any  one  all  the  land  he  could  afford 
to  buy  at  a  very  low  price,  seldom  above  $2.50  and  much 
of  it  at  $1.25  per  acre. 

Displacing  Stockmen. — The  whole  West  was  prac- 
tically before  them.  The  stockmen  who  were  the  pio- 
neers in  the  country  had  done  very  little  towards  ob- 
taining permanent  homes,  contenting  themselves  with 
taking  up  a  ranch  here  and  there,  which  offered  a  good 


82  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

point  for  establishing  a  headquarters  camp  or  cutting 
hay  for  winter  feeding.  As  a  general  thing,  however, 
they  scorned  a  permanent  home,  and  as  fast  as  the 
settlers  came  into  their  neighborhood  crowded  farther 
and  farther  out  into  the  almost  unknown  land  ahead  of 
them. 

I  well  remember  in  1885  the  disgust  which  fell  upon 
my  own  outfit,  then  located  upon  the  Little  Colorado 
River  in  northern  Arizona,  over  the  advent  of  a  neighbor. 
Our  nearest  had  been  twenty-five  miles  distant,  and  the 
newcomer  had  the  temerity  to  turn  loose  1,000  head  of 
west  Texas  heifers  at  a  point  fully  twenty  miles  above  us. 
Our  own  cattle  seldom  wandered  more  than  five  miles 
away  from  the  rough  camp  where  we  had  established 
ourselves.  Between  us  and  the  new  neighbor  was  an 
almost  untouched  stretch  of  grass  land,  and  back  of  us 
lay  a  virgin  country  fifty  miles  wide  with  not  a  settler 
or  a  domestic  animal  on  it.  Nevertheless,  we  felt  much 
aggrieved  at  the  nerve  of  the  newcomer  to  crowd  in 
on  us  in  that  fashion,  and  for  several  months  there  was 
a  hostile  feeling  between  the  two  outfits.  As  the  new- 
comer had  been  squeezed  out  of  his  Texas  ranges  by 
nesters,  our  lack  of  cordiality  made  no  impression  what- 
ever upon  him. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  end  of  our  delight- 
ful isolation,  and  we  lived  to  see  stockmen's  cabins  at 
every  water  hole  and  available  location  all  over  the 
country.  Where  we  had  felt  crowded  by  2,000  cattle, 
50,000  were  hunting  grass  and  water  on  the  same  range 
a  few  years  later.  And  our  case  was  typical  of  what  was 
happening  all  over  the  range  country. 

Early  Settlers  in  the  Great  Plains  Region.— While 
the  stockmen  were  neglecting  their  opportunities  the 


84  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

farming  class  of  settlers  were  working  westward  into 
Kansas  and  Nebraska,  following  up  the  streams  where 
the  rich  bottom  lands  offered  splendid  returns  to  the 
agriculturist.  For  many  years  the  higher  lands  or 
mesas  (from  the  Spanish  meaning  table)  lying  back 
from  the  streams  were  passed  by  and  allowed  to  remain 
for  the  open  range  of  the  stockmen.  Gradually  the 
available  locations  along  the  streams  were  taken  up 
and  the  newcomers  tried  farming  on  the  higher  benches 
back  from  the  bottom  lands,  while  the  line  of  settlers 
worked  farther  and  farther  west  out  into  the  region 
where  the  rainfall  was  much  less. 

For  a  series  of  years  they  raised  great  crops  all  over 
this  region.  Then  came  a  setback  through  drouth  that 
extended  over  several  years.  Not  being  prepared  to  face 
such  a  condition  they  were  forced  to  abandon  their 
farms,  and  from  about  the  line  of  the  97th  Meridian 
west  almost  up  to  the  foothills  of  the  Rockies  they  prac- 
tically deserted  the  country  en  masse.  The  land  went 
back  to  the  stockmen  and  the  tide  of  westward  emigra- 
tion stood  still  for  several  years. 

Meantime,  in  some  parts  of  the  Southwest,  in  Ari- 
zona, New  Mexico  and'Colorado,  the  California  method 
of  irrigation  was  gaining  a  footing.  Thin  lines  of  settle- 
ments were  working  up  the  various  little  streams  whose 
waters  were  taken  from  them  through  ditches  and 
poured  upon  the  thirsty  land.  In  northern  Arizona  the 
Mormons  established  themselves  at  several  points,  sur- 
mounting obstacles  that  no  other  class  of  people  on 
earth  could  have  successfully  overcome. 

All  that  great  country  along  the  Arkansas  River  in 
Western  Kansas  and  eastern  Colorado  was  then  consid- 
ered as  the  very  cream  of  the  open  range.  Thousands 


COMING  OF  THE  SETTLER.  85 

upon  thousands  of  cattle  and  horses  ranged  over  those 
broad  prairies,  watering  at  the  river  and  grazing  back 
over  the  prairies  for  miles  upon  each  side  of  it.  Then 
the  settlers  began  to  creep  up  its  borders  and  gradually 
the  stockmen  found  their  watering  places  fenced  up, 
and  where  once  there  had  been  miles  upon  miles  of  open 
water  along  the  river  they  found  their  cattle  turned  back 
by  the  farmers'  fences. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  end,  for  about  that 
time  the  effect  of  overgrazing  began  to  tell  on  the  carry- 
ing capacity  of  the  ranges,  and  one  hard  winter  literally 
swept  the  country  bare  of  stock. 

The  Settlers'  Second  Attack  on  the  Arid  Regions.— A 
few  years  later,  encouraged  by  a  series  of  wet  years,  the 
farmers  again  took  up  their  attack  on  the  desert  and 
slowly  began  to  force  their  way  westward.  The  class 
of  men  who  came  this  second  time  were  better  prepared 
to  meet  the  vicissitudes  of  desert  farming  and  had  suffi- 
cient means  to  meet  a  few  bad  years.  Fortunately  for 
the  country,  as  well  as  their  own  future,  there  followed 
a  decade  of  splendid  years.  The  line  of  farms  worked 
steadily  westward  until  the  little  town  of  Hutchinson, 
Kans.,  which  at  one  time  was  considered  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  desert,  was  left  far  behind. 

Ask  any  old-time  farmer  what  made  the  change,  and 
he  will  promptly  assure  you  that  the  climate  has 
changed.  He  will  declare  that  it  rains  more  than  it  used 
to  and  that  there  is  not  so  much  wind  as  formerly,  all 
of  which  he  believes  accounts  for  the  success  of  the 
farmer  in  the  desert.  However,  the  weather  records  kept 
for  forty  years  at  Fort  Dodge,  Kans.,  and  almost  as  long 
at  other  western  army  posts,  prove  conclusively  that 
taken  by  ten-year  periods  there  has  been  no  appreciable 


86          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

change  in  the  rainfall  or  other  climatic  conditions  any- 
where in  the  West. 

Success  of  the  Settlers. — The  success  of  the  whole 
thing  lay  in  the  fact  that  with  the  second  attack  the 
settlers  had  a  series  of  years  in  which  the  rainfall  was 
unusually  regular.  This  gave  them  time  to  get  estab- 
lished in  some  comfort.  When  a  series  of  dry  years 
came  they  had  the  soil  in  such  condition  that  it  returned 
them  good  crops  with  much  less  rain,  while  even  if  the 
crops  failed  for  one  year  they  had  saved  up  surplus 
enough  to  carry  themselves  and  their  live  stock  through 
a  year  or  two  of  shortage. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  did  much  to  help  the 
settlers  in  this  work  by  hunting  the  world  over  for 
drouth-resistant  plants  of  all  kinds.  From  Russia  and 
other  regions  they  brought  new  species  of  wheat  and 
other  grains  that  were  accustomed  to  grow  with  a  mini- 
mum of  moisture.  On  the  steppes  of  Russia  it  found 
an  alfalfa  that  grew  amid  the  most  inhospitable  condi- 
tions of  cold  and  drouth.  This  work  was  also  of  great 
value  to  the  dry-farming  raid  on  the  desert  lands  which 
came  a  few  years  later. 

Then  came  the  great'growth  of  the  beet  sugar  indus- 
try all  over  the  West.  Huge  irrigation  works  were 
planned  and  carried  out  wherever  there  was  a  stream 
available.  Western  Kansas  and  eastern  Colorado  made 
especially  great  strides  in  these  respects.  In  the  North- 
west in  Montana,  Idaho,  Utah  and  the  two  Dakotas, 
between  the  growth  of  the  sugar  industry  and  the  grow- 
ing of  wheat  on  lands  that  had  always  been  supposed  to 
be  worthless  for  any  purpose  whatever  except  grazing, 
the  settlers  swarmed  over  the  land. 

All  these  things  spelled  finis  for  the  range  stock  busi- 


COMING  OF  THE  SETTLER.  87 

ness.  The  Dakotas,  which  at  one  time  were  the  great- 
est of  the  open  range  states,  practically  ceased  to  be  fac- 
tors in  it.  This  also  held  good  on  large  areas  of  the 
other  states,  although  few  of  them  became  so  completely 
possessed  by  the  "man  with  the  hoe"  as  the  Dakotas. 
In  the  meantime  the  same  process  had  been  repeated  on 
the  Pacific  Coast.  The  Sierras  offered  a  barrier  to  the 
settlers  in  California,  but  they  pushed  up  the  coast  and 
worked  their  way  eastward  into  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton, over  the  tips  of  the  Cascades  and  out  onto  the  great 
sweeping  prairies  of  eastern  Oregon. 

The  Mormons.— With  their  oasis  at  Salt  L£ke  City 
for  a  headquarters,  the  settlement  started  on  the  margin 
of  the  great  Salt  Lake  in  1847  by  the  Mormons  was 
slowly  spreading  out,  feeling  its  way  cautiously.  Once 
a  foot  was  planted  they  never  turned  back  nor  aban- 
doned their  position.  Down  into  Arizona  on  the  south, 
and  north  into  Idaho,  pressed  these  desert  fighters  of 
Brigham  Young.  Alone  and  unaided  they  faced  and 
solved  some  of  the  most  difficult  problems  that  the  new- 
comers in  any  country  have  been  called  upon  to  meet. 

The  Nesters. — One  peculiar  class  of  western  settler 
was  the  nester.  As  the  stock-raisers  opened  up  the 
country  the  water  question  soon  became  important,  and 
locations  on  creeks  and  other  streams,  springs  and  water 
holes  began  to  have  a  decided  value.  Ordinarily  the 
larger  outfits  made  locations  in  various  ways,  so  as  to 
cover  these  watering  places  upon  the  more  important 
parts  of  their  range,  with  a  view  to  spreading  out  their 
holdings  in  such  a  way  that  through  their  control  of  the 
watering  places  the  surrounding  range  would  naturally 
be  left  to  their  stock.  Through  dummy  locators,  land 
scrip  and  many  other  methods,  some  legal  and  others  at 


88  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

least  questionable,  such  locations  were  spread  over  as 
large  a  country  as  possible.  Still  it  was  not  always  prac- 
ticable to  protect  every  place. 

The  nester,  alive  to  this  fact,  dropped  down  into  the 
middle  of  the  range  at  some  unimportant  water  hole 
and  unloaded  his  goods  and  chattels  from  his  covered 
wagon.  Possibly  he  filed  a  bona  fide  location  upon  the 
place;  more  often  he  did  not.  In  any  event,  he  had 
several  months  in  which  to  perfect  his  filings  before  he 
could  be  removed  legally,  and  meantime  in  most  cases 
he  was  there  simply  to  harass  the  stockman.  Little 
patches  of  ground  were  plowed  up  with  a  pretense  of 
farming  and  a  crop  was  planted.  The  range  cattle  would 
break  through  the  ramshackle  fence  which  had  been 
placed  about  the  so-called  farm  and  immediately  a  dam- 
age claim  was  instituted. 

Motherless  calves  were  picked  up  and  branded  by  the 
nester,  whose  sole  claim  to  them  was  through  the  pos- 
session of  a  team,  possibly  a  couple  of  milk  cows,  and 
the  ownership  of  a  brand,  which  was  seldom  legally 
recorded.  His  dogs  fought  off  the  range  cattle  when 
they  came  for  water,  and  more  often  the  water  itself 
was  fenced  in.  The  final  coup  de  grace  by  such  an  indi- 
vidual was  a  threat  to  sell  out  his  claim  to  some  wan- 
dering sheepman. 

In  every  possible  way  the  nester  was  a  thorn  in  thr 
side  of  the  stockmen,  especially  the  cattle  outfits.  If  his 
claim  was  purchased  merely  to  get  rid  of  him,  he  gener- 
ally moved  along  onto  some  other  range,  and  repeated 
the  proceedings.  The  nester  was  responsible  for  an  im- 
mense amount  of  hard  feeling  between  the  cattle  and 
sheep  interests,  as  well  as  more  or  less  bloodshed  through 
attempts  to  get  rid  of  him  and  his  kind,  by  evictions  ai 
the  muzzle  of  a  Winchester. 


COMING  OF  THE  SETTLER. 


89 


The  Dry  Farmers. — During  the  past  few  years  a  new 
type  of  settler,  the  dry  farmer  or  "kafer  corn-er,"  as  he  is 
often  called,  has  worked  great  changes  in  the  western 
ranges,  especially  in  the  Great  Plains  region  lying  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Through  this  broad  strip, 
which  is  probably  200  miles  wide  and  extends  from  the 
Canadian  line  on  the  north  down  into  the  Texas  staked 
plains  on  the  south,  the  annual  rainfall  of  about  18  inches 
is  sufficient  to  admit  of  dry  farming,  or  farming  without 
irrigation,  if  carried  on  under  certain  well-defined  prin- 
ciples. 

While  the  dry  farming  scheme  is  not  altogether  of 
recent  origin,  having  been  practiced  for  many  years  in 
certain  portions  of  the  arid  region,  it  attracted  but  little 
attention  until  a  few  years  ago.  Partially  under  the  im- 
pulse of  land-booming  agencies,  this  new  system  of  farm- 
ing was  brought  prominently  before  the  public.  As  the 
areas  on  which  it  could  be  applied  were  large  and  open 
to  settlement  under  Government  laws,  the  land-hungry 
people  eagerly  took  up  the  idea.  The  Panhandle  of 
Texas  was  the  scene  of  the  greatest  development,  and  in 
an  incredibly  short  time  thousands  of  settlers  secured 
homes  on  land  that  had  been  previously  classed  as  fit 
only  for  grazing  purposes.  Aided  by  a  series  of  unusu- 
ally good  years  they  grew  crops  the  equal  of  anything 
possible  by  irrigation.  Miles  and  miles  of  prairie  land 
were  broken  up  by  farmers,  most  of  them  well-to-do 
eastern  men,  who  brought  with  them  not  only  their 
horses,  cows  and  household  furniture  but  money  enough 
to  carry  them  over  the  first  few  years. 

Under  such  conditions  the  changes  that  came  over 
the  land  in  the  dry-farming  regions  were  remarkable. 
Little  hamlets  grew  into  towns,  towns  into  cities,  and 


90  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

where  only  the  sheep-herder  or  cowboy  had  lately 
reigned,  every  quarter-section  had  its  house.  Miles  and 
miles  of  wire  fences  closed  the  ranges  up  to  stockmen, 
and  thousands  of  cattle  and  sheep  were  forced  to  leave 
the  regions  which  they  had  used  for  years.  Many  of  the 
larger  outfits,  seeing  the  inevitable,  sold  their  stock  and 
left  the  country  in  disgust.  Many  who  had  bought  large 
tracts  of  land,  especially  in  Texas,  found  their  land  far 
too  valuable  to  retain  for  cattle-raising,  so  after  ship- 
ping out  the  cattle  they  divided  their  holdings  into  small 
tracts,  which  were  eagerly  snapped  up.  Land  that  had 
for  years  gone  begging  at  $1  to  $2  per  acre  was  held  at 
$20  to  $40  per  acre. 

The  dry  farmers  poured  over  into  eastern  New  Mex- 
ico, where  the  conditions  of  land  and  rainfall  were  the 
same  as  in  the  Panhandle,  and  drove  the  stockmen  from 
their  ranges  in  that  region.  Up  through  eastern  Colo- 
rado into  Wyoming,  Montana  and  Utah  the  same  condi- 
tions prevailed,  and  the  end  is  not  yet. 

That  total  failure  was  prophesied  by  all  the  old- 
timers  in  the  West  goes  without  saying.  That  there  has 
so  far  been  no  general  failure  is  an  honest  fact.  Here 
and  there  failures  have' occurred,  due  to  spotted  rain- 
fall, and  a  total  disregard  of  the  true  scientific  principles 
underlying  the  dry-farming  theory.  Generally  speak- 
ing, however,  all  over  this  dry-farming  region  the  prin- 
ciple has  worked  out  in  a  highly  successful  manner,  and 
unquestionably  the  dry  farmer  is  here  to  stay,  and  must 
be  reckoned  with  in  the  future  as  an  additional  producer 
of  stock  and  farm  products. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  RANGE. 

• 

Live  Stock  on  the  Range. — On  January  1,  1913,  there 
were  in  the  United  States,  according  to  the  Government 
statistics,  56,527,000  cattle,  51,482,000  sheep,  20,567,000 
horses  and  4,386,000  mules.  The  total  value  of  these 
animals  was  over  $4,357,000,000.  In  the  states  that  lie 
west  of  the  Missouri  River,  and  which  may  be  classified 
as  range  states,  namely,  Washington,  Oregon,  Califor- 
nia, Idaho,  Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Colo- 
rado, Wyoming,  Montana,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska, 
North  Dakota,  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  Texas,  the  total 
number  of  stock  Jan.  1,  1913,  was  -as 'follows :  Cattle, 
23,218,000;  sheep,  32,124,000.  The  state  of  Texas  stands 
at  the  head  of  the  western  cattle  states  with  a  total  of 
6,056,000  head,  while  Montana,  with  5,111,000  sheep 
heads  the  list  of  sheep-owning  states,  Wyoming  coming 
next  with  4,472,000  head. 

Live  Stock  in  Western  States. — The  figures  on  the 
following  page  taken  from  the  government  reports  show- 
ing the  number  of  each  class  of  stock  in  the  various  range 
states  on  Jan.  1,  1910,  and  on  Jan.  1,  1913,  may  be  of 
interest  to  students. 

Of  the  eastern  states  little  Rhode  Island  has  7,000 
sheep  and  the  great  corn-growing  and  cattle-feeding 
state  of  Iowa  has  3,944,000  cattle.  A  net  reduction  of 

91 


92 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


almost  seven  million  cattle  in  these  states  in  the  three 
years  is  a  ready  answer  to  the  question  of  why  beefsteak 
is  so  high. 


State. 


Cattle- 

1910 


Texas 8,268,000 

Montana 922,000 

Wyoming 986,000 

Colorado 1,586,000 

New  Mexico 930,000 

Arizona 651,000 

Utah 415,000 

Nevada 423,000 

Idaho 421,000 

Oregon 872,000 

California 1,572,000 

Washington 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 1,996,000 

Nebraska 3,919,000 

Kansas 3,997,000 

Oklahoma...  ..  1,992,000 


1913 

6,056,000 
812,000 
542,000 
1,093,000 
947,000 
812,000 
437,900 
453,000 
442,000 
639,000 
1,964,000 
405,000 
714,000 
1,278,000 
2,509,000 
2,476,000 
1,639,000 

30,376,000          23,218,000 


Sheep ^ 

1910  1913 

1,909,000  2,073,000 

5,747,000  5,111,000 

7,316,000  4,472,000 

1,729,000  ,737,000 

4,729,000  3,330,000 

1,020,000  .  ,570,000 

3,177,000  ,990,000 

1,585,000  ,487,000 

4,248,000  2,951,000 

2,581,000  2,644,000 

2,372,000  2,603,000 

783,000  501,000 

621,000  293,000 

829,000  593,000 

393,000  382,000 

278,000  316,000 

108,000  71,000 

39,425,000  32,124,000 


Short-horns  on  the  Range. — In  the  early  years  of 
the  western  range  business  Short-horns,  then  called 
Durhams,  were  the  predominant  breed.  The  long-horns 
from  Texas  could  not  be  classified  under  any  particular 
breed  or  kind,  but  were  probably  descendants  of  the 
Spanish  cattle  brought 'originally  into  old  Mexico  from 
where  they  spread  to  the  Texas  ranges.  There  they 
were  bred  up  mainly  by  the  use  of  Short-horn  bulls. 
So  long  as  the  ranges  were  virgin  and  grass  was  plenti- 
ful, J;he  Short-horn  breed  flourished  and  held  its  own. 

The  Devon  was  raised  to  some  extent,  the  Mormon 
people  who  went  west  taking  a  large  number  of  Devons 
with  them.  For  years  many  of  the  herds  in  Utah  and 
those  places  where  the  early  Mormon  pioneers  gained  a 
foothold  showed  the  cherry  red  of  the  Devon  blood  very 
plainly.  As  the  ranges  were  filled  up  with  stock  and 


LIVE   STOCK  ON   THE   RANGE 


93 


feed  became  scarce,  the  Short-horn  was  found  deficient 
in  those  rustling  qualities  which  were  an  absolute  neces- 
sity where  animals  were  allowed  to  fight  for  their  lives 
in  the  snows  of  winter  and  the  drouths  of  summer. 
The  Short-horn  in  such  circumstances  lost  much  of  its 


Type   of   Short-horn   Bull. 

vitality  and  stamina  and  it  was  soon  found  that  a  hardier 
breed  must  be  used  for  the  open  range. 

The  Advent  of  Herefords. — Then  Herefords  began 
to  make  their  appearance,  and  with  their  unrivaled 
rustling  ability,  their  prepotency  (which  shows  in  the 
white  faces  of  the  calves,  no  matter  how  low  the  grade 


Type   of  Devon   Bull, 


Type  of  Hereford  Bull. 


LIVE   STOCK  ON   THE   RANGE 


95 


may  be),  and  their  early-maturing  qualities,  quickly  be- 
came prime  favorites.  Today  there  is  practically  .but 
one  breed  of  cattle  used  on  the  open  ranges;  that  is 
the  Hereford. 

The  Polled  Angus,  now  called  Aberdeen  Angus,  and 
Galloways  were  tried  by  the  western  rangemen,  and 
for  a  time  it  was  believed  they  offered  cattle  that  would 


Type  of  Angus  Bull. 

be  superior  to  every  other  kind.  A  few  years  of  ex- 
perience, however,  modified  this  view.  They  were  hardy 
enough,  excellent  rustlers  and  with  their  good  coats  were 
able  to  withstand  hard  winters.  For  some  reason,  how- 
ever, the  bulls  did  not  breed  well  under  open  range 
conditions,  and  as  a  rule  the  calf  crops  from  these  ani- 
mals were  too  light  to  make  either  the:  Galloway  or  the 
Angus  a  profitable  breed. 


96 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


Handled  in  small  bunches  and  under  fences  the 
"blacks"  do  well,  and  the  steers  are  highly  prized  for 
their  feeding  qualities. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  the  Hereford  blood,  unless 
often  changed,  for  the  cattle  to  lose  size,  become  narrow 
in  the  hips,  drawn  up  in  the  flanks,  heavy  in  the  necks 
and  shoulders  and  to  develop,  staggy  horns.  The  most 
successful  of  the  western  cattlemen,  after  using  Here- 


Type  of  Galloway  Bull. 

ford  bulls  for  six  or  eight  years,  have  put  the  very 
roughest  big-boned  Short-horns  they  could  procure  into 
their  herds  for  a  couple  of  years  in  order  to  widen  the 
cattle  out  and  check  the  tendency  toward  narrowness. 
When  the  Hereford  bulls  are  again  used  the  calves 
resulting  from  this  cross  are  very  superior  feeding  steers, 
wide  of  hips,  thin  of  neck  and  with  well  shaped  heads 
and  horns.  The  clear  white  face  of  the  Hereford  is 


LIVE   STOCK  ON   THE   RANGE  97 

lost  by  the  infusion  of  Short-horn  blood,  showing  in 
the  "brockle"  faces  of  the  young  stock. 

Early  Horses  of  the  Plains. — When  the  early  Ameri- 
can explorers  first  saw  the  western  plains  they  found 
besides  the  buffalo  and  game  animals  great  herds  of  wild 
horses.  Capt.  Zebulon  Pike,  the  bold  American  officer 
who  in  1806  toiled  up  the  banks  of  the  Arkansas  River 
clear  to  its  source,  writes  of  their  presence  on  the  great 
plains,  and  other  explorers  before  him  also  tell  of  them. 
When  Coronado,  the  Spanish  explorer,  worked  his  way 
eastward  in  1545  onto  the  grassy  prairies  of  eastern  New 
Mexico,  western  Kansas  and  the  Texas  Panhandle,  he 
found  the  Indians  using  dogs  for  moving  their  camp 
plunder.  The  dogs  were  packed  with  burdens  and  also 
dragged  loads  swung  between  poles,  as  in  later  days  the 
ponies  did  with  the  lodge  poles.  There  were  no  horses 
there  then. 

Later  on  in  1716  another  Spanish  expedition  swung 
east  across  the  plains  from  near  Santa  Fe,  N.  M.,  going 
clear  to  the  Missouri.  They  took  numbers  of  horses 
with  them  and  their  reports  of  the  trip  tell  of  the  won- 
der of  the  Indians  at  the  animals,  showing  that  they 
knew  nothing  of  them  at  that  time.  However,  as  the 
Spaniards  had  with  them  both  mares  and  stallions  and 
were  constantly  losing  them  from  various  causes  there 
is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  the  original  stock  from 
which  the  great  herds  of  wild  horses  (mustangs)  came, 
was  brought  by  these  Spanish  expeditions.  The  few 
that  were  lost  bred  rapidly  under  unusually  good  con- 
ditions and  in  a  comparatively  few  years  they  could  be 
found  everywhere  on  the  plains. 

Stockmen's  Horses. — The  stockmen  brought  many 
horses  with  them  which  they  turned  out  on  the  ranges 


98  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

to  graze  with  the  cattle.  So  long  as  the  ranges  were 
good  and  not  overstocked  these  horses  bred  and  did  well, 
but  with  depleted  ranges  they  rapidly  deteriorated  until 
the  raising  of  range  horses  was  almost  abandoned.  From 
1890  to  1900  horses  were  a  drug  on  the  market  and  were 
shot  and  killed  as  nuisances  on  the  ranges.  With  a  re- 
duction in  numbers  and  the  great  demand  due  to  the 
Boer  War  and  later  on  the  Russian-Japanese  War,  they 
were  gathered  up  and  shipped  out  by  thousands  until 
the  ranges  were  almost  cleaned  up. 

Then  came  a  reaction,  and  men  saw  that  horses  could 
be  raised  on  the  ranges  with  success,  if  they  were  given 
proper  attention  and  fed  in  winter  when  feed  was  scarce. 
Today,  while  there  are  fewer  horses  on  the  western 
ranges  they  are  worth  more  per  head  and  get  better 
care  than  formerly.  The  western  stockman  is  gradually 
working  back  into  the  range-horse  business  with  great 
success. 

Mustangs. — There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  romantic 
nonsense  indulged  in  over  the  mustang.  His  beautiful 
build,  wonderful  endurance  and  remarkable  intelligence 
have  been  written  up  in  glowing  colors.  Most  writers 
have  assumed  that  mustangs  possessed  these  attributes 
because  they  were  descended  from  the  horses  brought 
over  from  Spain  by  the  early  Spanish  explorers,  and  they 
did  of  course  doubtless  have  their  beginning  in  this  man- 
ner. The  facts  are  that  the  true  mustang  was  a  small- 
boned  inbred  undersized  pony,  generally  of  an  "off"  color, 
mean  of  temper  and  narrow  between  the  eyes.  Nor  is 
there  anything  in  existence  to  prove  that  because  he 
came  over  with  those  conquistadores  he  was  of  royal 
Arabian  descent.  The  Spanish  people  as  a  race  have 
never  been  noted  for  possessing  or  raising  horses  of 


LIVE   STOCK  ON   THE   RANGE 


99 


very  good  blood,  and  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  the 
animals  Cortez,  Coronado  and  the  rest  of  the  early  ex- 
plorers brought  over  with  them  were  anything  but  the 
small  common-bred  horses  such  as  the  Spanish  then  gen- 
erally used. 

"Mustanging"  was  like  trout  fishing.  It  is  always 
the  big  ones  that  get  away.  When  you  did  get  a  bunch 
of  them  into  a  corral  you  found  they  did  not  look  half 
so  large  and  handsome  as  when  they  were  first  sighted 
on  the  prairie.  The  "coal-black  stallion  with  arching 
neck,  and  tail  and  mane  dragging  the  ground,"  which 
led  the  band,  was  the  "Flying  Dutchman"  of  the  plains. 
True,  there  was  in  later  days  an  occasional  large,  well- 
built,  well-bred  horse  seen  among  the  mustangs,  but 
when  captured  it  always  turned  out  to  be  an  "escape" 
lost  from  some  stockman's  herd  or  traveler's  team,  gen- 
erally well-branded  and  saddle  and  harness-marked.  The 
wild  horses  of  the  present  day  are  not  mustangs  at  all 
but  merely  well-bred  horses  that  have  been  allowed  to 
get  away  from  their  owners  through  poor  range  handling 
or  lost  from  pastures  or  wagon  trains.  In  some  respects 
these  later  wild  horses  are  far  harder  to  capture  than 
the  old  mustangs,  because  of  their  greater  intelligence 
and  speed. 

Wrong  Use  of  Names. — In  speaking  of  the  different 
types  or  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle,  there  are  several 
words  that  are  constantly  misused.  It  is  not  correct  to 
speak  of  a  Thoroughbred  cow.  Cattle  can  only  be  pure- 
bred, grades  or  scrubs.  One  should  not  call  a  running 
horse  standard-bred.  The  running  strain  of  horses  are 
Thoroughbreds  only,  if  they  have  the  requisite  breed- 
ing. This  is  the  name  applied  to  the  English  running 
breed.  All  American  trotting  horses  that  come  up  to 


100 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


certain  requirements  of  blood  and  breeding  are  stand- 
ard-bred. Percherons,  Clydesdales,  Shires  and  other 
heavy  horses  are  draft  horses  or  drafters. 

Sheep  Introduced. — The  first  sheep  within  the  area 
now  embraced  by  the  United  States  were  brought  into 
what  is  now  the  state  of  New  Mexico  by  the  Franciscan 
friars,  who  accompanied  the  Spanish  conquistadores  on 
their  journeys  into  that  region  from  Mexico  in  search 


A  Fen  of  Shropshires. 

of  the  fabled  "cities  of  Cibola."  It  is  recorded  that  in 
1581  an  expedition  of  which  the  friar  Padre  Luiz  was  a 
member  brought  a  few  sheep  with  them  from  Mexico 
and  left  them  with  the  Indians  at  the  Pueblo  of  Zuni, 
which  lies  today  not  far  from  the  town  of  Gallup,  N.  M. 
The  Indians  in  that  region,  especially  the  Pueblos,  took 
kindly  to  the  sheep  business. 


Hampshire  Sheep. 


102 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


The  Pueblos  with  their  permanent  homes,  domestic 
instincts  and  industry  were  peculiarly  well  fitted  for 
shepherds,  and  in  a  comparatively  short  time  the  raising 
of  sheep  had  become  a  regular  business  with  them.  Not 
only  did  they  raise  the  wool  but  under  the  tutelage  of 
the  Spanish  priests  became  expert  blanket-weavers. 
Blanket-weaving  is  always  associated  with  the  Navajo 


Rambouillet   Rams. 

Indian  tribe  of  the  Southwest,  but  the  facts  are,  how- 
ever, that  the  various  Pueblos,  notably  the  Zunis,  Mokis, 
Acomas,  Lagunas  and  the  more  northern  Pueblo  of  Taos, 
were  weaving  blankets  and  raising  sheep  fully  a  century 
before  the  Navajos  tried  their  hands  at  it. 

The  Navajos  knew  about  sheep  for  many  years,  owing 
to  their  predatory  habits   of  raiding  the   herds   of  the 


LIVE   STOCK  ON   THE   RANGE  103 

Pueblos  and  Spaniards  alike.  Due  to  their  unsettled 
mode  of  living,  they  did  little  towards  raising  sheep  until 
they  were  placed  upon  a  reservation  in  southern  New 
Mexico  near  Fort  Sumner  in  the  early  '60's.  There  they 
were  forced  to  take  up  more  civilized  industries,  and 
when  they  were  later  removed  to  their  present  reserva- 
tion in  northern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  they  had 
progressed  so  far  in  the  arts  of  peace  that  the  Govern- 
ment aided  them  by  supplying  the  tribe  with  30,000 
sheep  and  2,000  goats.  It  was  the  hope  of  the  Govern- 
ment officials  that  through  such  means  they  would  for- 
sake their  warlike  methods  and  become  peaceable,  and 
the  results  have  more  than  justified  the  trial.  No  nation 
with  a  million  sheep  scattered  out  over  the  deserts  and 
mountains  can  afford  to  risk  its  property  by  making 
war  upon  its  neighbors.  Hence  the  Navajos  ceased 
their  raids. 

Early  Shepherding.  —  The  conditions  surrounding 
sheep-raising  in  New  Mexico  up  to  within  a  few  years 
were  almost  ideal  in  their  character  and  much  like  those 
of  ancient  biblical  times.  The  whole  people  were  in- 
terested in  the  industry,  and  it  was  the  sole  means  of 
support  for  a  large  majority  of  them.  Some  of  the  heads 
of  the  older  families  were  veritable  patriarchs  in  their 
holdings,  and  the  lands  and  herds  descended  from  father 
to  son  for  many  years.  Some  of  the  older  Spanish-Mexi- 
can families  have  grazed  their  sheep  continuously  on  the 
same  lands  for  more  than  200  years,  and  are  today  occu- 
pying the  same  ranges  upon  which  their  forefathers  set- 
tled. 

The  New  Mexican  sheep-grower  was  not  so  advanced, 
however,  in  his  ideas  as  to  improving  his  flocks  as  Amer- 
ican flockmasters,  and  for  this  reason  until  recent  years 


104  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

the  standard  of  New  Mexico  sheep  has  not  been  very 
high.  They  have  been  light  shearers,  bare-bellied  and 
small-bodied,  but  extremely  hardy  and  excellent  feeders 
when  placed  under  feedlot  conditions. 

California,  with  its  great  mountain  ranges  for  summer 
grazing  and  vast  desert  ranges  for  wintering  and  early 
lambing  grounds,  offered  an  ideal  place  for  sheep-raising. 
It  did  not  take  the  early  Spanish  settlers  long  to  realize 
this  fact,  and  they  built  up  their  flock  with  the  very 
best  strains  of  Spanish  blood,  principally  Merinos.  As 
the  country  settled  up  the  more  enterprising  California 
sheepmen  pushed  out  into  the  deserts  and  country  to 
the  east,  crossing  the  big  Colorado  River  into  Arizona. 
Here  they  found  a  virgin  area  similar  in  character  to  the 
coast  ranges.  Drifting  across  the  desert  that  lies  along 
the  western  border  of  Arizona,  they  worked  their  way 
into  the  San  Francisco  mountain  country,  where  they 
established  themselves  permanently. 

Impress  of  the  Merino. — To  this  day  the  impress  of 
the  Merino  sheep,  which  the  early  settlers  like  the  Daggs 
Bros.,  the  Clarks,  Scotts,  Campbells  and  other  coast 
sheepmen  brought  into  Arizona,  can  be  seen  in  the  herds 
of  northern  Arizona  and  Especially  about  the  San  Fran- 
cisco mountain  region.  Their  good  weights,  splendid 
shearing  qualities  and  hardiness  make  the  sheep  of 
northern  Arizona  superior  to  the  sheep  raised  in  any 
other  portion  of  the  Southwest.  In  the  Northwest 
the  California  sheepmen  also  left  their  imprint  upon 
the  herds.  A  large  portion  of  the  original  stock  of 
sheep  in  Oregon,  Washington,  Idaho  and  Montana  was 
brought  from  the  Golden  State,  and  through  careful 
crossing  the  sheep  of  this  region  have  become  large- 
bodied  and  heavy  shearers. 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  RANGE  105 

All  over  the  West  the  original  stock  of  sheep  came 
from  the  Merino  foundation,  but  there  is  a  great  variety 
of  opinion  among  sheepmen  as  to  the  relative  value  of 
the  various  breeds.  Nexj:  to  the  Merino  probably  comes 
the  Shropshire,  which  is  a  great  favorite  with  flock- 


A  Cotswold  Ram. 

masters  in  the  West.  The  Lincoln,  Cotswold,  Rambouil- 
let,  Hampshire  and  other  standard  breeds  of  the  heavy 
mutton  sheep,  each  with  a  strong  following  advocat- 
ing its  superiority,  are  found  doing  well  all  over  the 
western  range  country. 

The  western  range  sheepman  has  learned  by  experi- 


106  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

ence  that  the  ewes  he  breeds  from  must  have  a  certain 
percentage  of  Merino  blood  in  them  to  give  strong  consti- 
tutions and  the  power  to  exist  under  the  many  trying 
conditions  of  climate  and  natural  surroundings  which 
beset  range  sheep.  The  Merino,  together  with  Delaines 
and  Rambouillets,  which  are  but  highly  bred  types  of 
Merinos,  is  a  breed  peculiarly  well  constituted  to  meet 
such  climatic  conditions  as  are  found  on  our  western 
desert  ranges.  To  such  qualities  they  add  the  herding 
instinct,  which  is  almost  unknown  in  any  of  the  various 
types  or  breeds  of  mutton  sheep. 

Securing  Mutton  Type. — Shropshires,  Cotswolds, 
Hampshires,  Lincolns  and  the  other  breeds  of  coarse- 
wooled  or  mutton  races  do  not  herd  well  in  large  bands. 
They  scatter  out  too  much  and  if  alarmed,  instead  of 
"bunching  up"  as  will  Merinos,  often  run  in  every  direc- 
tion. Of  recent  years,  however,  range  sheepmen  have 
turned  their  attention  more  to  the  mutton  end  of  their 
business  than  formerly.  Americans  are  learning  to  eat 
mutton  more  and  more  every  year,  and  the  long-headed 
men  in  the  sheep  business  saw  where  they  could  have 
two  strings  to  their  bow,  by  looking  after  the  mutton 
business  as  well  as  raising  wool. 

Where  this  has  been  done  rams  of  the  various  mut- 
ton breeds  are  used  to  produce  the  class  of  lambs  de- 
sired for  feeding  purposes.  Then,  in  order  to  retain  the 
vitality  of  the  ewe  band,  part  of  the  ewes  are  bred  to 
Merino  rams,  retaining  the  resulting  ewe  lambs  to  take 
the  place  of  the  old  ewes.  For  these  reasons  it  is  evi- 
dent that  a  Merino  foundation  will  always  be  desirable 
in  the  breeding  of  a  band  of  sheep  intended  for  range 
purposes  in  the  West. 

Goats. — During  the  past  ten  years  the  raising  of  goats 


LIVE  STOCK  ON   THE   RANGE  107 

of  a  higher  grade  than  the  ordinary  animal  of  the  humor- 
ist has  developed  into  a  good-sized  industry.  In  New 
Mexico  common  Mexican  goats  have  always  been  raised 
in  numbers,  both  for  milking  purposes  and  for  skins. 
They  thrive  where  no  other  domestic  animal  but  the 


A  Band  of  Common  New  Mexico  Goats, 

burro  could  find  a  living,  and  need  but  little  herding  or 
attention  from  their  owners. 

Several  years  ago  the  proprietor  of  a  large  tannery 
where  skins  for  ladies'  shoes  were  an  especial  line  began 
the  raising  of  ordinary  Mexican  goats  in  northern  New 
Mexico  on  quite  a  large  scale,  solely  for  the  hides.  It 
was  soon  discovered  that  where  they  could  be  raised  in 
small  herds  with  very  little  care,  when  placed  in  large 
bunches  and  handled  on  a  business  basis  they  lost  money 
for  their  owners.  So  the  big  goat  ranch  was  abandoned, 


108 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


the  owner  gave  up  the  idea  of  raising  his  own  goat  skins 
in  large  quantities  and  went  back  to  the  old  method  of 
obtaining  his  supplies  for  tanning  purposes. 

Angoras. — For  many  years  the  raising  of  a  higher 
class  of  goat,  the  Angora,  has  been  carried  on  in  the 
United  States,  particularly  in  the  Southwest  and  on  the 
Pacific  Coast,  where  there  are  several  herds  of  imported 


Angoras  on   Brushy   Hillsides   in   Arizona. 

goats  from  the  best  blood  in  South  Africa  and  Asia. 
The  value  of  these  animals  is  two-fold,  like  that  of 
sheep,  in  that  they  furnish  a  material  for  manufacturing 
purposes  in  their  hair,  and  also  yield  food. 

Goats  can  be  raised  on  lands  that  furnish  but  little 
feed  for  any  other  domestic  animal.  Brushy  hillsides  are 
their  abiding  places  and  the  more  rugged  and  rocky  the 


LIVE   STOCK  ON   THE   RANGE. 


109 


range  the  better  they  like  it.  In  the  Southwest,  espe- 
cially in  New  Mexico,  the  industry  found  a  splendid  op- 
portunity to  develop,  and  areas  of  many  thousands  of 
acres  covered  with  the  densest  thickets  of  underbrush 
furnished  the  best  range  for  them.  The  region  about  Sil- 
ver City,  N.  M.,  is  in  the  heart  of  a  goat-raising  district, 
and  nearby  will  be  found  some  of  the  largest  and  best- 
bred  herds  of  Angoras  in  the  West. 

There  are  also  a  great  many  Angora  goats  in  west 
Texas,  Arizona  and  California,  and  the  introduction  of 
improved  billies  from  Africa,  where  the  best  blood  from 
Asia   was   originally   taken,    has   brought   the   standard 
of  the  herds  to  a  very  high  degree.    Experts  believe  that 
the  Southwest  offers  almost  ideal  conditions  under  which 
to  raise  a  class  of  Mohair  equal  to  the  very  best  im- 
ported.   In  1881  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  absolutely  prohib- 
ited the  exportation  of  any  more  Angoras  from  that  coun- 
try, and  although  a  few  head  have  since  been  smuggled 
out  the  South  African  supply  has  been  the  main  source  of 
the  importations  into  the  United  States,  until  recently, 
when  the  South  African  government  prohibited  further 
exportation  from  that  country  also.     Fortunately,  how- 
ever, the  importations  into  the  United  States  had  been 
of  so  superior  a  class  that  it  is  believed  American  Angora- 
raisers  can  keep  up  the  standard  of  their  flocks  without 
further  infusion  of  foreign  blood.    Many  expert  authori- 
ties believe  that,  due  to  the  great  care  in  selection,  the 
skill  in  breeding  and  the  business-like  manner  in  which 
American  Angora-raisers  have  handled  their  flocks  the 
breed  here  will  eventually  be  superior  to  that  of  either 
Turkey  or  South  Africa. 

This  is  undoubtedly  true  so  far  as  Turkey  is  concerned, 
because  the  breeding  of  Angoras  there  is  not  in  the  hands 


110  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

of  people  who  are  capable  of  giving  it  the  care  and  atten- 
tion it  should  have.  In  fact,  the  breeding  of  Turkish  An- 
goras has  been  seriously  lowered  in  recent  years  through 
the  carelessness  and  lack  of  good  judgment  by  breeders 
who  recklessly  crossed  their  best  blood  with  the  common 
Kurdish  goats  in  an  attempt  to  improve  the  character  of 
the  mohair.  The  result  of  this  has  been  an  increase  in 
kemp  which  has  seriously  injured  the  value  of  the  mohair. 
Kemp  is  the  coarse  chalky-white  hair  which  is  found  in 
even  the  best  of  fleeces,  and  which  many  breeders  believe 
can  never  be  wholly  bred  out  of  Angoras.  It  is  a  remin- 
der of  the  common  goat  from  which  the  Angora  was 
originally  bred.  Some  American  breeders  believe  that 
with  careful  selection  kemp  can  finally  be  entirely  elimi- 
nated. The  objection  to  kemp,  apart  from  its  coarse- 
ness, is  that  it  will  not  take  the  various  dyes  used,  and 
thus  it  greatly  injures  the  quality  of  the  manufactured 
product. 

The  best  grade  of  mohair  should  hang  in  long  curly 
ringlets  from  all  parts  of  the  animal's  body  and  possess 
a  beautiful  silky  sheen.  To  be  of  value  it  should  not 
be  less  than  six  inches  in  length,  of  uniform  size  from 
root  to  tip  and  free  from  stain.  The  price  per  pound 
rises  rapidly  with  the  length.  As  much  as  $14  per 
pound  has  been  paid  for  twenty-two-inch  lengths,  while 
there  is  a  steady  demand  for  good  fleeces  between  ten 
and  fifteen  inches  long  at  prices  ranging  from  $6  to  $10 
per  pound.  The  sum  of  $115  has  been  paid  for  the  fleece 
weighing  eighteen  pounds  from  a  single  Angora  raised 
in  Texas,  and  buyers  will  take  all  they  can  get  at  such 
high  figures,  if  it  comes  up  to  the  desired  standard  of 
length. 


LIVE  STOCK  ON   THE   RANGE  111 

The  average  yearly  shearing  of  a  bunch  of  range  An- 
gora goats  is  probably  about  2*/2  pounds,  although  of 
course  small  lots  of  well-bred  goats  will  average  higher. 
However,  it  is  doubtful  whether  taking  the  shearing 
of  a  large  number  of  herds  in  the  range  districts  they 
will  average  much  more  than  this  limit. 

The  success  of  the  industry  is  partially  connected  with 
the  demands  of  trade.  A  change  in  the  use  of  certain 
lines  of  plushes  and  that  class  of  mohair  goods,  due  to 
caprices  of  fashion,  has  caused  a  fluctuation  in  the 
value  of  the  hair  from  $1  to  one-fourth  that  sum. 

The  goats  are  much  in  demand  by  farmers  who  de- 
sire to  clear  up  brushy  areas  upon  their  farms,  and 
thousands  of  them  are  annually  shipped  from  the  south- 
western regions  to  the  eastern  states  to  be  used  as 
brush  destroyers.  As  meat-producing  animals  their  po- 
sition is  not  at  present  fully  assured.  Growers  call  the 
meat  Angora  mutton  or  Angora  venison,  and  the  flavor 
and  delicacy  of  the  meat,  especially  of  the  kids,  is  un- 
equalled. The  prejudice  against  goat  meat,  especially 
among  people  in  the  West,  is  hard  to  overcome,  and  there 
is  no  just  reason  for  it,  but  when  it  comes  to  questions 
of  taste  in  eating,  reason  seldom  enters  into  the  mat- 
ter. The  prejudice  is  there  and  argument  or  discussion 
seldom  removes  it.  The  time  will  no  doubt  come,  how- 
ever, when  with  the  increasing  high  prices  obtained  for 
mutton  and  beef,  Angora  venison  will  find  its  way  into 
use  as  a  substitute  and  have  its  place  as  an  approxi- 
mately new  food  supply. 

Hogs  on  the  Ranges. — That  the  hog  is  a  range  animal 
may  seem  absurd  to  some,  but  the  truth  is  that  in  the 
West,  and  especially  the  Southwest,  thousands  of  hogs 
are  raised  almost  entirely  on  the  open  range.  Of  course 


112  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

the  most  successful  raisers  are  those  who  graze  their 
hogs  on  the  open  ranges  while  the  crop  of  acorns  and 
other  feed  is  plentiful,  taking  them  up  and  feeding  them 
corn  when  the  range  feed  is  short.  Still  there  are  many 
hogs  raised  the  year  around  on  the  range,  just  as  are 
the  cattle  and  sheep. 

In  many  districts  hogs  are  treated  much  the  same  as 
the  cattle.  They  are  ear-marked  and  branded  by  their 
owners,  rounded  up  at  stated  times  and  taken  home  for 
killing  or  sale.  I  have  seen  hog  roundups  in  the  Tonto 
Basin  country  in  Arizona  where  hundreds  of  the  ani- 
mals, wild  as  deer,  and  some  of  them  fierce  as  tigers, 
were  gathered  together.  The  young  were  ear-marked 
and  branded  exactly  like  cattle.  Those  needed  for  kill- 
ing were  cut  out  and  driven  home,  and  the  rest  were 
turned  out  on  the  range  to  take  care  of  themselves  for 
another  year. 

In  northern  California,  where  the  mountain  lions  and 
other  predatory  animals  make  heavy  inroads  on  hogs, 
the  owners  place  large  cowbells  upon  the  sows.  A  double 
strap  is  generally  used,  one  about  the  neck  and  the 
other  behind  the  fore  legs  and  connected  with  a  strap 
to  the  front  one.  A  bunch  of  old  sows  lying  peacefully 
in  a  hidden  mudhole  in  the  thick  oaks  and  suddenly  dis- 
turbed will  make  about  as  alarming  a  racket  as  can  well 
be  imagined — enough  to  frighten  away  any  marauding 
animal  with  pork-eating  proclivities. 

The  raising  of  hogs  under  these  conditions  is  satis- 
factory, so  long  as  they  can  range  in  a  region  not  occu- 
pied by  settlers  and  their  farms.  Where  there  are  fields 
and  gardens  with  irrigation  ditches,  hogs  are  a  great 
source  of  trouble  and  must  naturally  be  legislated 
against.  This  is  also  true  in  mining  districts,  where  wa- 


LIVE  STOCK  ON   THE   RANGE  113 

ter  for  hydraulic  and  milling  purposes  is  brought  in  open 
ditches  which  furnish  the  animals  with  a  splendid  place 
in  which  to  wallow,  much  to  the  injury  of  the  ditches 
and  their  contents. 


CHAPTER  V. 
HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE. 

While  the  old-time  conditions  of  the  palmy  years  from 
1885  to  1900  are  gone,  never  to  return,  there  are  yet  many 
large  range  cattle  outfits  left  in  the  West.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  the  southwestern  section  of  the  country, 
where,  in  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  can  be  found  com- 
panies with  cattle  running  into  the  thousands,  which 
graze  on  the  open  range. 

Number  of  Range  Outfits. — Most  of  the  Texas  outfits 
have  their  herds  in  fenced  pastures,  but  the  enclosed 
areas  are  so  large  that  it  practically  amounts  to  open 
range  conditions  in  handling  stock.  The  Matadors, 
X  I  T's,  L  F  D's,  and  a  number  of  other  big  concerns  in 
Texas,  own  herds  of  from  30,000  to  60,000  head,  ranging 
in  great  pastures  of  thousands  of  acres. 

In  the  southeastern  part  of  New  Mexico  there  are  sev- 
eral big  outfits  that  graze  on  the  open  Government 
ranges  lying  east  and  west  of  the  Pecos  River.  Some 
of  these  companies  own  as  many  as  40,000  range  cattle. 
The  great  Bell  Ranch  in  central  New  Mexico  owns  a 
Spanish  grant  of  almost  a  million  acres,  all  under  fence, 
on  which  they  graze  40,000  to  50,000  high-grade  cattle. 
There  are  many  large  companies  scattered  through  New 
Mexico,  especially  in  Socorro  and  Grant  counties  in  the 
southeastern  section  of  the  state,  where  one  finds  herds 

114 


HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE  115 

like  the  Diamond  A's  ( /\),  the  V  Cross  T's  ( \J  -f  "["  ), 
the  Bar  W  (^/)  with  from  10,000  to  40,000  head  each 
on  the  open  ranges.  The  Diamond  A's  have  one  fenced 
pasture  near  Engle,  N.  M.,  containing  more  than  700,000 
acres. 

Arizona  was  once  the  home  of  several  huge  range  out- 
fits, but  the  years  from  1893  to  1899  saw  many  of  them 
shipping  out  their  stock  and  abandoning  the  business, 
especially  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  where  the 
sheepmen  gradually  forced  them  off  the  ranges.  The 
largest  of  these  was  the  Aztec  Cattle  Co.,  which  in  1888 
was  running  60,000  mixed  cattle  on  its  Little  Colorado 
range,  all  in  the  famous  West  Texas  Hash  Knife  brand 
("/P").  In  southern  Arizona  about  Wilcox  and  near  Tuc- 
son there  are  still  several  good-sized  ranges  like  those  of 
the  Sierra  Bonita  Co.,  the  San  Simon,  the  Empire  Co. 
and  the  holdings  of  the  Greene  Cattle  Co.,  each  of  which 
probably  runs  up  into  herds  of  more  than  four  figures. 

There  are  several  very  large  companies  operating  on 
the  open  country  in  the  eastern  and  southeastern  part 
of  Colorado,  the  Prairie  Cattle  Co.  of  La  Junta  probably 
being  the  largest  of  them  all.  These  Colorado  outfits, 
however,  are  generally  steer  ranches,  and  either  own 
stock  cattle  in  the  southern  country  from  which  they 
draw  their  steers  or  buy  them  and  ship  up  from  below. 
In  the  Northwest  there  are  comparatively  few  outfits 
handling  stock  cattle  at  the  present  time  to  any  ex- 
tent exclusively  on  the  open  range.  Some  of  the 
largest  of  them  are  in  Nevada,  Utah  and  Wyoming. 
There  are,  however,  many  good-sized  outfits  all  over  that 
region  and  in  South  Dakota  and  Montana,  that  handle 
steers  in  large  numbers,  but  with  the  rapid  encroach- 
ments on  the  old  ranges  they  are  fast  disappearing. 


116  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

But  in  the  Southwest,  owing  to  climatic  conditions,  it 
will  be  some  years  yet  before  the  dry  farmers  or  any  other 
class  of  settlers  can  make  such  inroads  upon  their  ranges 
as  to  force  them  entirely  out  of  business.  The  settlers 
have  already  cut  into  the  ranges  in  this  section  to  a  very 
serious  extent.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  limit  of 
their  advancement  has  been  reached  and  that  the  wave 
of  settlers'  that  has  been  sweeping  across  this  region  in 
the  last  few  years,  beginning  about  1902,  has  reached 
very  close  to  high-water  mark.  Under  all  present  known 
conditions  of  farming,  little  further  extension  of  the  pos- 
sible area  under  which  dry  farming  may  be  carried  on 
successfully  can  be  expected. 

Past  and  Present  Range  Conditions. — Upon  the  south- 
western ranges  the  old-time  conditions  are  still  found 
with  modern  improvements.  The  advent  of  the  barbed 
wire  fence  probably  did  more  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  -open  range  stockman  than  any  one  thing  that  has 
come  to  him.  The  former  harum-scarum  methods  are 
gone.  The  breeding  of  the  cattle  is  greatly  improved, 
and  they  are  better  handled,  better  looked  after  and  the 
whole  business  is  upon  a  more  business-like  basis  than 
it  was  years  ago. 

One  can  still  find  the  old-time  "chuck  wagon"  and  the 
great  mess  box  with  its  hospitable  lid  and  cranky  cook. 
The  horse  wrangler  still  occupies  the  next  place  in  im- 
portance in  the  outfit,  and  the  bronco  buster  plies  his 
vocation  as  of  old.  There  is  lacking,  however,  the  old 
free  wild  and  woolly  time.  No  more  does  the  bad  man 
of  the  outfit  shoot  holes  in  the  camp  kettles  or  coffee 
pots  because  the  quality  of  the  grub  does  not  suit  him. 

The  broad-brimmed  Stetson  or  Mexican  sombrero  has 
gone,  and  in  its  place  one  finds  them  wearing  small 


The   Chaparejos   With   the    Goat   Skin   Front   Are   More   Theatrical   than   Practical. 


118  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

brimmed  black  hats  or  even  Fedoras,  which  will  turn 
down  over  their  eyes  on  a  sunny  day  and  do  not  weigh 
so  much  as  the  great  broad-brimmed  hats.  They  stay 
on  the  head  better,  too.  The  long  hat  strings,  which 
every  man  once  spent  hours  to  plait  from  strings  cut 
from  the  tops  of  his  old  boots,  and  whose  long  tails  or- 
namented with  fancy  turk's  heads  and  other  knots  hung 
down  his  back,  are  also  gone. 

The  high-heeled  boots  are  not  so  prominent.  Once 
no  self-respecting  puncher  considered  himself  dressed 
for  work  until  he  had  his  feet  inside  of  a  pair  of  $15 
boots  made  by  one  of  the  favorite  boot-makers,  whose 
merits  they  discussed  about  the  camp  fires  night  after 
night.  Great  high  tops  they  had  with  stars  in  red  and 
blue,  and  fancy  sewing  all  over  them.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  three-inch  heel  the  real  "top  waddy"  had  a  silver 
quarter  fastened  as  a  plate. 

Then  the  "chaps"  are  also  gone.  Probably  the  aver- 
age easterner  will  see  more  men  wearing  chaps  in  a 
year  if  he  attends  the  Buffalo  Bill  and  other  tent  shows 
and  keeps  track  of  the  various  theatrical  offerings  that 
furnish  pictures  of  western  ranch  life  than  he  would  if 
he  spent  five  years  on  the  western  ranges.  Here  and 
there  one  will  find  a  man  wearing  chaps  on  the  range, 
but  they  now  are  generally  conspicuous  by  their  ab- 
sence. 

Old-time  Equipment. — But  in  the  old  times — Ah, 
what  money  was  spent  on  such  things !  Silver-mounted 
spurs,  Spanish  "spade  bits"  that  cost  from  $15  to  $30, 
headstalls  that  took  hours  upon  hours  to  plait,  reins  that 
were  twenty-four-strand  and  plaited  from  the  finest 
grade  of  whang  leather  ornamented  with  wonderful 
knots,  fancy  buttons  and  tassels.  Then  there  were 


HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE  119 

eight-strand  reatas  whose  making  took  days  of  careful 
work  and  used  up  the  center  of  half  a  dozen  of  the 
finest  calf  skins;  quirts,  the  result  of  hours  about  the 
camp  fires  (they  were  works  of  art)  ;  hair  ropes  ("me- 
cates")  spun  from  the  very  choicest  mane  hair  taken 
from  some  bunch  of  "broom  tails"  (mares)  which  the 
boys  rounded  up  on  an  afternoon  and  spent  hours  in 
throwing  in  order  to  obtain  the  hair. 

Let  there  come  an  odd  afternoon  when  the  outfit  is 
not  working  and  out  from  some  one's  bed  roll  comes  a 
set  of  hair  spinners;  from  the  bottom  of  the  "chuck 
wagon"  a  gunny  sack  of  hair  is  dug  up,  and  soon  they 
are  busy  making  hair  ropes.  One  man  picks  the  hair 
while  two  others  spin  the  strands.  By  selecting  the 
colors  of  the  hair,  red,  white  or  black,  it  is  possible  to 
secure  very  handsome  ropes  of  natural  colors.  When 
the  rope  is  finished  it  is  washed  in  a  bucket  of  water 
in  which  is  placed  a  handful  of  soda  stolen  from  the 
cook's  can.  This  bleaches  the  white  hair  and  when  the 
ends  of  the  loose  hairs  have  been  singed  off  and  a  turk's 
head  worked  in  one  end  the  rope  is  finished. 

Contrary  to  general  opinion,  the  hair  rope  is  valuable 
neither  for  its  great  strength  nor  roping  qualities.  As 
a  catch  rope  it  is  a  failure  because  it  is  too  light  to  throw 
well  and  offers  too  much  surface  to  the  wind.  The  rope 
is  not  particularly  strong  and  will  not  stand  any  severe 
strain.  Its  chief  value  is  for  reins  for  hackamores  in 
handling  young  horses  and  for  tie  ropes  for  saddle 
horses.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  spring  or  give  in 
hair  ropes,  and  they  do  not  slip  through  the  hands  so 
readily  as  hard  twisted  ropes. 

One  reads  occasionally  of  old  hair  ropes  made  from 
the  hair  of  young  women  captured  by  Indians,  which 


120  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

have  been  used  to  rope  buffaloes  and  wild  horses.  I 
do  not  say  that  they  were  never  made  of  such  materials 
or  used  for  this  purpose,  but  I  have  serious  doubts  about 
the  matter. 

The  "Bog  Rider." — In  some  parts  of  the  West,  espe- 
cially in  the  Southwest,  where  owing  to  the  quicksand 
the  streams  are  very  dangerous,  the  stockmen  are  com- 
pelled to  fence  up  long  stretches  of  the  more  treacherous 
spots.  This  forces  cattle  to  water  at  points  where 
through  rocky  ledges  coming  to  the  surface  or  other  nat- 
ural reasons  the  bottom  is  more  reliable  and  the  ani- 
mals do  not  bog. 

When  cattle  have  been  without  water  for  long  periods 
they  reach  the  streams  famished,  and  in  their  eagerness 
work  far  out  into  the  stream,  meantime  slowly  sinking 
into  the  quicksand.  Then  when  the  animal,  not  any  too 
strong,  and  burdened  with  several  gallons  of  water,  tries 
to  lift  its  feet  they  are  fast  in  the  grip  of  the  sand  and 
slowly  but  surely  settling  deeper  and  deeper  into  it.  In 
ordinary  circumstances,  if  the  feet  are  buried  in  the  sand 
not  more  than  six  inches  deep,  the  animal  is  unable  to 
release  them.  The  suction  that  seems  to  exist  under 
such  conditions  holds  the  foot  as  if  in  a  vise.  It  was 
common  to  see  a  cow's  leg  broken  where  the  "bog  riders'' 
(men  employed  specially  to  ride  the  banks  of  these 
streams  at  certain  seasons)  found  the  animal  with  but  one 
foot  fast  in  the  sand  and  tried  to  pull  her  out  with  their 
ropes,  without  first  digging  the  foot  free  clear  to  the  very 
toes.  On  a  good  square  pull  it  was  impossible  for  a 
strong  horse  to  pull  a  cow  out  of  such  a  position  where 
two  feet  were  fast  in  the  sand  up  to  the  knees  until  they 
had  been  dug  clear  out.  With  but  one  foot  fast  and 
buried  not  much  over  the  hoof,  a  strong  man  with  a  rope 
fastened  about  the  animal's  leg  is  often  unable  to  lift  the 


The    "Bog    Rider"    at    Work. — Top:     Pulling    a    Cow    Out   of   a    Bog   Hole    (Rope 
Attached    to    Saddle    Horn).     Bottom:      Trying    to    Save    a    Cow. 


122  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

foot  out  of  the  sand  until  it  has  been  dug  away  with  the 
hands  or  a  shovel  and  thoroughly  loosened. 

Generally  in  the  Southwest  the  cattle  began  to  "bog 
down"  in  March,  and  bog-riding  was  necessary  until  the 
cows  began  to  gain  strength,  which  was  in  May.  During 
these  two  months  the  losses  were  severe  because  even  if 
the  animal  were  pulled  out  by  the  riders,  if  she  had  been 
in  the  icy  cold  water  for  more  than  a  few  hours  she  was 
so  chilled  that  she  had  lost  all  control  of  her  limbs,  and 
frequently  could  not  get  up  at  all. 

During  the  spring  of  1893  by  actual  count  more  than 
1,000  cows  were  pulled  out  of  the  Little  Colorado  River 
in  Arizona  in  a  stretch  of  fifty  miles.  Every  one  died 
where  the  "bog  riders"  left  her — on  the  bank  of  that 
treacherous  stream.  Besides  the  dead,  about  as  many 
more  were  pulled  but  managed  to  get  up  and  stagger  off 
onto  the  range,  where  we  used  to  estimate  that  not  more 
than  one  in  every  five  lived  to  raise  her  calf. 

The  work  of  the  "bog  riders"  was  very  hard  and  dis- 
agreeable. The  men  generally  worked  in  pairs,  and  while 
one  pulled  at  the  animal  by  his  rope  at  the  horn  of  his 
saddle  the  other  waded  into  the  cold  water,  dug  the 
animal's  feet  loose  and  lifted  and  boosted  on  her  until 
between  them  she  was  worked  to  the  bank.  There  she 
was  "tailed  up"  and  got  onto  her  feet,  if  that  was  pos- 
sible, or  left  to  die.  Bog-riding  was  not  profitable  to  the 
cowmen  but  it  seemed  dreadful  to  let  them  die  in  the 
water  without  at  least  trying  to  do  something  for  them. 
If  the  cow  did  not  get  up  within  the  next  day  or  two  the 
"bog  riders"  generally  put  her  out  of  her  misery,  and 
skinned  her. 

The  Indians  coveted  the  hides  for  moccasin  soles  and 
after  a  good  many  bogged  cattle  had  been  shot  by  them 
and  skinned  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  make  an  example 


HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE  123 

of  them.  So  one  or  two  were  caught  and  tried  and  pun- 
ished by  jail  sentences  for  killing  live  stock  unlawfully. 
After  that  we  began  to  find  cows  in  the  bog  with  the 
hides  peeled  from  their  backs  down  to  the  water  or  mud- 
line,  and  still  alive.  I  well  recall  our  horror  when  we  ran 
across  two  cows  lying  in  an  out-of.-the-way  bog  hole, 
each  skinned  down  to  the  middle  of  the  sides  but  still 
alive,  as  was  shown  by  their  moving  eyes  and  the  grit- 
ting of  the  teeth  which  suffering  cattle  frequently  do. 
We  finally  managed  to  catch  two  Indians  red-handed 
who  when  brought  into  court  acknowledged  their  offense 
but  declared  they  had  not  killed  the  cows,  but  as  they 
were  sure  to  die  anyhow  thought  they  might  as  well  get 
the  hide  as  to  see  it  wasted.  We  got  them  on  the  cruelty 
to  animals  law. 

"Developing"  Water. — Again  in  the  early  days  during 
the  dry  seasons  such  streams  as  the  Arkansas  in  Colo- 
rado, the  Little  Colorado  in  Arizona  and  the  Rio  Grande 
or  Pecos  in  New  Mexico  were  mere  sandy  wastes  for 
miles  and  miles,  showing  no  water  whatever  on  the  sur- 
face. The  experienced  cowman,  however,  reaching  such  a 
stream  first  drove  the  saddle  horses  across  the  sand  sev- 
eral times  to  "settle  it."  This  would  pack  the  quicksand 
and  as  the  horses  were  strong  and  active  and  kept  on 
the  move,  none  of  them  was  caught  in  the  sand. 

After  the  sand  settled,  the  cattle  were  driven  onto  it 
and  with  their  milling  about  in  search  of  a  drink  the 
settling  process  was  completed  and  the  sand  became  as 
hard  as  a  city  street.  With  this  hardening  process  the 
water  immediately  began  to  rise  above  the  sand  and  with- 
in half  an  hour  there  would  be  a  good-sized  stream  flow- 
ing where  there  had  been  no  signs  of  water  whatever. 
Twelve  hours  after  this  the  water  had  again  disappeared 
and  the  sand  was  almost  as  soft  and  treacherous  as  ever. 


124 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


Range  Methods. — On  the  range  the  cattle  are  still  han- 
dled in  the  same  manner  as  of  old,  with  modern  improve- 
ments. The  roundup  outfit  takes  breakfast  at  4  a.  m., 
as  of  yore.  Around  the  campfire  the  shivering  boys  gather 
to  eat,  and  by  the  time  that  is  over  it  is  probably  light 
enough  to  distinguish  objects.  Each  man  takes  his  night 
horse,  which  has  been  tied  up  near  camp  all  night,  and 
rides  off  into  the  prairies,  looking  up  the  saddle  horses 
hoppled  out  the  night  before. 


A    New    Mexico    Round-up    Outfit    and    an    Old-time    Chuck    Wagon. 

One  does  not  walk  up  to  the  average  cow  pony  that 
is  hoppled  out  and  expect  him  to  stand  still.  He  is  not 
broken  that  way.  Instead,  when  you  are  about  ten  feet 
from  him,  stoop  dowrn  as  low  as  you  can  and  crawl  up 
to  him,  not  looking  up  at  or  noticing  him  in  any  way. 
He  will  let  you  touch  his  feet  and  unhopple  him  very 
easily.  If  you  should  want  that  particular  horse  to  ride, 
do  not  unhopple  him  until  you  have  a  rope  about  his 


HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE 


125 


neck,  for  the  instant  he  feels  the  hopples  loose  from  his 
legs,  away  he  goes.  By  rising  slowly,  and  carefully 
stroking  his  legs  as  you  rise,  it  is  possible  to  slip  a  rope 
about  his  neck  with  which  to  hold  him.  Do  not  make 
any  sudden  movements ;  go  slowly  and  carefully,  if  you 
would  capture  him. 

If  the  outfit  has  a  night  herder  for  the  horses  he  will 
have  them  in  at  camp  by  the  time  the  men  are  through 
breakfast,  but  the  night  herder  should  be  seldom  used,  as 


"Stoop    as   You    Near    the    Average    Cow    Pony." 

horses  do  much  better  hoppled  than  herded  at  night.  Not 
one  man  out  of  a  hundred  can  herd  a  lot  of  horses  at 
night  without  bunching  them  so  closely  that  they  get  very 
little  feed.  He  is  afraid  of  losing  one,  and  so  does  not 
let  them  scatter  out. 

After  the  chuck  wagon  has  been  loaded  and  the  cook 
told  where  to  meet  the  outfit  for  dinner,  the  men  ride 
back  on  the  range.  When  the  roundup  boss  has  reached 


126  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

a  distance  from  water  where  he  believes  the  outside  cat- 
tle are  to  be  found  he  divides  his  party,  dropping  a  man 
off  here  and  one  there.  In  this  manner  he  spreads  his 
force  out  fan-like  over  quite  an  area,  and  as  they  all 
have  orders  to  drive  to  a  certain  point  they  work  in  har- 
mony. 

At  first  but  few  cattle  will  be  found.  Gradually  they 
pick  up  more  and  more — here  a  few  in  this  draw,  there 
a  little  bunch  in  that  canyon,  and  by  the  time  they  are 
half-way  down  the  range  they  will  have  gathered  a  good- 
sized  bunch.  Gradually  the  men  draw  together.  The 
trails  converge  at  the  watering  place  picked  out  for  the 
roundup,  and  as  the  drives  are  laid  out  so  as  to  follow 
as  nearly  as  possible  the  daily  drift  of  the  cattle  to  and 
from  water  they  are  not  hard  to  drive  in.  Gathered  at 
the  roundup  ground,  they  are  bunched  up  in  one  great 
herd. 

Herds  Not  Large. — One  reads  of  roundup  herds  with 
tens  of  thousands  of  cattle.  This,  like  the  hair  rope 
story,  is  met  with  in  books  but  in  practice  a  herd  of  1,000 
head  is  all  that  can  be  successfully  handled,  and  500  is 
far  better.  I  doubt  very  much  whether  any  one  ever 
saw  10,000  range  cattle  in  one  herd.  In  the  first  place 
the  larger  herds  cannot  be  kept  in  shape.  They  are  too 
bulky  and  unmanageable.  Again,  in  such  great  herds 
the  calves  would  become  separated  from  their  moth- 
ers and  never  be  able  to  find  them. 

Sometimes  large  herds  will  be  picked  up  at  water- 
ing-places in  dry  times  when  the  cattle  are  concentrated, 
but  when  this  occurs  the  roundup  boss,  if  he  is  a  good 
man,  will  let  the  herd  settle  down  for  a  time  and  then 
carefully  cut  it  in  two  before  trying  to  handle  it. 

Branding  the  Calves. — If  the  calves  are  being  branded 
they  are  first  cut  out  by  the  men.  This  is  done  quietly 


I 

I 


HANDLING  CATTLE  0N  THE  RANGE  - 


129 


and  easily  so  as  to  disturb  the  .herd  as  little  as  possible. 
The  men  work  singly,,  although  in  some  places,  it  is 
done  by  two  men  to  a  cow.  ("double,  barreled"),  but 
this  is  not  a  good  plan  in  a  general  way. 

After  the  calves  are  out  of  the  bunch  the  "dry  stuff- 
steers,  dry  cows  and  strays— is  .taken  out  and  thrown 
into  the  "day  herd."    .The  calves  and  cows  are  then  tak- 


A    Round-up    Outfit    Branding    Calves. 

en  to  some  corral  if  one  is  available  or  rounded  up  on 
the  prairie,  a  fire  built,  and  when  the  irons  are  hot,  the 
calves  are  roped  and  dragged  to  the  fire.  There  two 
husky  men  grab  them,  one  at  the  neck  and  the  other  at 
the  feet,  while  others  run  up  with  sharp  knives  to  mark 
the  ears  and  hot  irons  to  burn  the  brands  into  the  sides 
or  hips  of  the  animals. 


130 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


A  lively  crew  will  turn  out  a  good  many  calves  per 
hour,  all  depending  on  the  speed  of  the  ropers  and  the 
ease  with  which  the  animals  can  be  handled.  If  there  is 
a  corral  handy  the  work  is  easier,  and  when  it  can  be 
done  the  calves  are  dodged  out  by  dodge-gates  and 
placed  in  one  small  corral,  where  the  men  work  on  foot. 
No  ropes  are  used,  a  man  grabbing  a  calf  by  the  right 
hind  leg  while  his  partner  grabs  it  by  the  tail.  A  quick 


"They  Are  Roped  and  Dragged  to  the  Fire." 

jerk  and  the  animal  lands  upon  its  side,  and  before  it  can 
rise  it  finds  a  man  sitting  on  its  neck  and  head  with  an- 
other at  its  hind  legs,  and  the  operation  is  soon  over. 
Working  this  way,  seven  men  will  turn  out  seventy-five 
calves  an  hour,  and  as  many  as  ninety  an  hour  have  been 
branded  where  everything  went  smoothly. 

Some  outfits  that  have  corrals,  particularly  in  Texas 
in  the  large  pastures,  use  squeeze  chutes  for  branding. 


HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE 


131 


The  calves  are  generally  not  branded  until  they  are 
eight  months  old  and  as  they  are  pretty  husky  by  that 
time  the  squeeze  chute  is  a  great  saver  of  hard  labor. 
The  chute  for  calves  is  the  same  as  that  used  for  large 
animals. 

Night  Guard  Duty. — The  day's  work  generally  closes 
with  the  hoppling  out  of  the  saddle  horses,  and  when 


Putting  a   "Butt"   Brand  on   a   Calf    (Note   the    "Slash   Cross"    Over  the   Ribs). 

the  day  herd  is  worked  up  close  to  camp  and  bedded 
down  for  the  night  the  first  guard  take  them  in  hand, 
and  the  rest  of  the  camp  goes  to  bed.  Depending  on 
the  size  of  the  herd,  the  guards  are  from  one  man  at  a 


132 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


time  to  three  and  even  four.  The  men  ride  in  circles 
about  the  herd,  so  as  to  meet  one  another,  and  under 
ordinary  conditions  the  animals  make  very  little  trouble. 
Occasionally  some  old  cow,  cut  away  from  her  yearling 
or  separated  from  another  cow  which  has  been  her 
"chum,"  will  make  a  dash  from  the  herd  and  try  to  es- 
cape. 

Stampedes. — Sometimes  at  night  when  everything  is 
quiet,    a    horse    will    shake    itself,    rattling    the    saddle 


"A    Quick    Jerk    and    the    Animal    Lands    Upon    Its    Side." 

pockets ;  a  guard  will  strike  a  match  for  his  pipe,  or  a 
great  horned  owl  will  come  swooping  down  over  the 
herd.  In  an  instant  the  whole  bunch  is  on  its  feet  and 
off,  and  the  animals  may  run  a  thousand  yards  or  a  ten- 
mile  heat. 

The  men  on  guard  do  their  best  to  point  them  around, 
so  as  to  throw  the  leaders  against  the  tail  of  the  herd 
and  thus  get  them  to  milling.  If  they  are  successful  the 
cattle  will  run  around  in  a  circle  ("mill")  for  awhile  and 


HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE 


133 


The    "Squeeze   Chute"    for   Branding   and  Dehorning. 

then  settle  down  and  in  a  few  minutes  all  will  be  asleep 
again.  Sometimes  on  a  dark  night  they  will  get  miles 
away  from  the  camp,  while  the  men  in  camp  sleep  sound- 
ly and  know  nothing  of  the  trials  of  the  men  on  guard. 


134 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


If  there  are  two  of  them,  one  may  try  to  reach  camp 
to  awaken  the  relief  men.  Often  he  gets  lost  in  the 
darkness  and  never  finds  camp,  so  the  men  on  guard 
are  forced  to  stay  with  the  herd  until  daylight. 

The  roundup  thus  progresses  around  the  range  until 
the  work  is  over,  and  the  steers  which  are  to  be  shipped 
are  cut  out.  The  other  stock,  which  has  been  carried 


Western   Inspectors    Examining1    Brands    of    Steers. 

along  for  various  reasons,  is  cut  out,  and  the  stray  men, 
as  the  men  from  the  other  ranges  are  called,  drive  off 
with  their  cattle  to  their  own  ranges.  The  steers  are 
taken  to  some  shipping  point  and  loaded  onto  cars  for 
their  destination. 

Brand  Inspectors. — At  the  stockyards  the  steers  are 
classed  according  to  their  brands  and  ages.    A  keen-eyed 


HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE 


135 


inspector  is  there  representing"  the  state,  to  take  down 
all  the  brands  and  see  that  no  strays  are  shipped,  thus 
protecting  the  interests  of  the  men  not  present.  All 
brands  for  which  there  is  no  owner  are  cut  out  and  turned 
loose  or  else  shipped  by  the  inspector  and  the  proceeds 
turned  over  to  the  state  authorities  to  be  held  for  the 
rightful  owner.  In  certain  sections  there  is  also  an 
inspector  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  who  looks 


Yearling  Steers  in  Yards  at  Magdalena,   N.   M.,   Awaiting  Inspection. 

the  stock  over  carefully  for  evidences  of  disease,  es- 
pecially Texas  fever  ticks  and  mange. 

Loading  for  Market. — After  passing  the  scrutiny  of 
these  inspectors,  the  stock  is  loaded  on  cars  and  goes  to 
market.  A  30-foot  car  is  the  standard  for  stock  cars  but 
36  feet  is  the  favorite  size,  while  of  late  years  some  of 
the  railroads  have  built  cars  up  to  40  feet. 

The  animals  are  crowded  into  the  cars  as  tightly  as 


136  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

they  can  be  and  still  give  room  enough  to  get  one  up  if 
it  gets  down.  A  36-foot  car  will  hold  above  forty  av- 
erage two-year-old  steers,  thirty-four  cows,  fifty-five  or 
sixty  yearlings  or  110  calves.  Twenty-eight  three-  and 
four-year-old  steers  will  make  a  good  load.  These  fig- 
ures are  for  average  southern  stock  and  are  not  given  as 
hard  and  fast  rules,  but  simply  to  show  about  how  much 
stuff  is  ordinarily  loaded.  The  length  of  the  run,  the 
condition  of  the  cattle,  and  the  judgment  of  the  shipper 
are  all  to  be  considered. 

Care  is  taken  not  to  give  the  stock  water  for  at  least 
twelve  hours  before  loading,  as  it  keeps  the  cars  from 
getting  sloppy  and  slippery,  resulting  in  the  animals  get- 
ting down  and  being  injured  by  the  others  tramping 
upon  them.  Such  animals  are  in  stockyard  circles  known 
as  "downers." 

Once  in  the  cars  they  are  not  unloaded  until  they 
reach  a  regular  feeding  point,  and  as  the  Federal  law  now 
requires  them  to  be  fed  and  watered  at  least  once  in 
twenty-eight  hours  the  runs  must  be  planned  to  meet 
this  law. 

Loss  of  "Downers." — The  men  in  charge  of  the  cattle 
endeavor  to  keep  them  on  their  feet  and  do  not  allow 
them  to  lie  down.  This  is  because  if  one  lies  down  the 
others  will  fall  over  it  and  trample  it,  bruising  and  often 
killing  it.  If  one  does  get  down  the  man  prods  it  until 
it  struggles  to  its  feet.  Sometimes  when  the  stock  is 
weak,  in  the  spring  shipment  it  is  necessary  for  the  ship- 
pers to  get  right  down  into  the  car  and  fight  the  cattle 
off  the  prostrate  animal  until  a  place  is  cleared  for  it  to 
rise.  Many  a  shipper  of  this  class  of  cattle  spends  hours 
riding  in  the  cars  while  the  train  is  running  keeping 


HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE 


137 


a  weak  cow  or  steer  on  its  feet,    or    the    others    from 
trampling  it  until  he  can  reach  a  feedyard  and  unload. 

In  bad  years,  when  the  cattle  from    the    South    are 
weak,  the  losses  are  enormous.     Ten  per  cent  is  not  an 


Loading   Fat    Steers   in   Colorado. 

infrequent  average  loss  on  a  shipment  where  the  cattle 
must  be  shipped  out  to  save  them  from  starvation. 

From  the  northern  ranges  the  steers  are  all  shipped 
out  fat  and  heavy  and  are  easily  handled.  Everything 
is  done  to  retain  the  fat  which  they  have  on  them  and 
woe  betide  the  reckless  puncher  who  runs  a  bunch  of 


138  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

them  or  hurries  them  unnecessarily  along  the  trail.  They 
are  loaded  with  every  possible  care,  and  as  they  are 
strong  they  make  the  shippers  very  little  trouble. 

Hay-fed  Cattle. — In  some  parts  of  the  West,  notably 
western  Colorado,  stockmen  are  raising  a  very  superior 
grade  of  steers  known  to  the  trade  as  hay-fed  cattle. 
They  are  commonly  southern  steers  brought  up  early  in 
the  spring  and  turned  out  on  the  mountain  ranges,  most- 
ly within  the  limits  of  the  various  National  Forests,  and 
grazed  on  the  ranges  until  snow  flies  in  the  fall.  They 
are  then  taken  to  the  home  ranches  of  the  owners  and 
fed  native  hay  to  finish  them  for  market. 

Under  such  conditions  these  steers  take  on  flesh  very 
rapidly  and  furnish  the  markets  with  a  supply  of  steers 
before  the  corn-fed  cattle  are  ready  for  the  trade.  This 
business  is  a  growing  one  and  while  it  has  been  devel- 
oped to  a  very  high  degree  in  Colorado,  it  is  followed  in 
many  portions  of  the  West  where  the  conditions  are 
right.  By  conditions  is  meant  the  proper  ranges  for  the 
summer'months,  such  as  are  found  in  the  higher  moun- 
tains of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  hay  meadows 
where  the  native  hay  can  be  grown  at  slight  cost.  The 
fact  that  most  of  these  hay  ranches  are  in  such  locali- 
ties that  the  hay  would  probably  not  find  a  market  ex- 
cept through  the  medium  of  the  cattle,  makes  the  busi- 
ness all  the  more  profitable. 

The  Humboldt  and  Reese  River  Valleys  in  central 
Nevada  are  other  districts  where  hay  feeding  has  been 
developed  to  a  great  business.  Most  of  the  Nevada  cat- 
tle are  shipped  west  to  the  coast,  principally  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

Rule    for    Measuring    Hay. — As    forest    officers    fre- 
quently purchase  hay  in  the  stack,  some  rule  or  method 


HANDLING  CATTLE  ON  THE  RANGE  139 

of  measurement  is  required  to  determine  the  contents 
of  a  stack  in  tons.  In  the  Southwest  the  army  officers 
purchasing  hay  for  the  army  posts  formerly  used  what 
is  known  as  the  "Government  rule,"  with  satisfaction 
to  both  sellers  and  buyers.  After  using  the  rule  for 
many  years,  both  for  buying  and  selling  hay,  during 
which  time  I  tested  out  the  measurements,  by  baling1 
from  a  measured  stack  and  then  weighing  the  bales,  I 
satisfied  myself  that  the  rule  was  fair  and  reliable,  and 
when  I  became  a  member  of  the  Xew  Mexico  terri- 
torial legislature  introduced  and  passed  a  bill  making 
it  the  legal  measurement  for  hay  there.  4t  has  stood 
the  test  of  several  years  since  then,  and  given  general 
satisfaction.  The  New  Mexico  rule  is  as  follows : 

Multiply  the  width  in  feet  by  the  over,  divide  this 
product  by  4  and  multiply  this  dividend  by  the  length. 
This  gives  the  contents  in  cubic  feet.  For  hay  that 
has  stood  not  over  30  days,  divide  by  512;  30  to  60  days, 
by  422;  over  60  days,  380,  which  gives  the  tonnage  of 
the  stack. 

Example :  Stack  is  20  feet  wide,  40  over  and  60 
long:  20X40=800;  800^4=200;  200x60=12,000; 

12,000-^512=23^  tons. 

The  principle  on  which  this  rule  is  based  is  that  the 
face  of  the  stack  represents  a  half  of  a  perfect  circle, 
and  while  not  every  stack  is  such  in  its  measurements, 
the  shapes  differing  with  every  stack,  the  average  of  a 
large  number  of  stacks  will  fall  clearly  within  that  prin- 
ciple. In  measuring  the  "over"  of  course  care  should 
be  *ised  to  find  a  fairly  representative  place  so  as  to 
obtain  a  fair  average  of  the  entire  stack. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

HANDLING  SHEEP  ON  THE  RANGE. 

There  has  been  a  great  development  of  the  sheep- 
raising  industry  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  states  during 
the  last  ten  years.  The  tariff  on  wool  placed  the  busi- 
ness upon  a  stable  basis  and  at  the  same  time  a  rapid 
growth  in  the  call  for  mutton  became  apparent.  Up  to 
ten  years  ago  the  American  people  could  not  be  said  to 
be  a  mutton-loving  people. 


A   Sheep    Wagon    or    Camp   on    Wheels    in    Wyoming. 

The  sheepmen  fostered  this  interest  in  mutton  by 
turning  attention  to  the  breeds  of  sheep  that  were  noted 
for  the  quality  of  their  mutton,  such  as  Shropshires, 
Southdowns  and  those  breeds  known  as  mutton  or 
open-wooled  sheep.  Up  to  this  time  wool  was  the  sole 
object  for  which  they  raised  sheep,,  mutton  being  a  side- 
no 


HANDLING  SHEEP  ON   THE   RANGE 


141 


issue.  It  was  found  that  several  of  the  breeds  were  well 
fitted  for  range  purposes,  and  sheepmen  introduced  the 
new  blood  into  their  herds  with  remarkable  success. 

Lamb  Feeding. — About  this  time  the  sugar  beet  grow- 
ers around  the  beet  sugar  factories  in  southwestern  Colo- 


An   Arizona    "Sheep    Wagon" — Burro    Packed   With    Grub    and    Water.          , 

rado  found  that  they  must  have  some  fertilizing  agent  for 
their  beet  lands.  They  had  immense  quantities  of  alfalfa 
hay  for  feeding  purposes,,  and  the  business  was  entered 
into  in  a  small  way  at  first.  It  was  quickly  discovered 
that  the  feeding  of  lambs  for  the  winter  market  was  a 
business  of  great  possibilities. 


142  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

The  lambs  could  be  purchased  in  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  at  reasonable  rates,  they  fed  well,  were  extreme- 
ly healthy  and  easily  handled.  Since  they  were  kept  in 
close  feedlots,  the  droppings  were  easily  taken  care  of 
and  as  a  fertilizer,  made  a  source  of  income  from  the  in- 
vestment in  addition  to  the  profit  in  the  growth  of  the 
animals.  This  business  grew  by  leaps  and  bounds,  and 
the  price  of  feed,  especially  alfalfa  hay,  went  soaring. 
The  feeders  also  found  that  they  could  import  corn  from 
Kansas  to  add  to  the  ration  with  excellent  results. 

Rise  in  Prices  for  Lambs. — The  great  demand  for 
lambs  worked  the  prices  up  until  the  New  Mexico  sheep 
men  were  able  to  contract  their  lamb  crop  at  prices 
which  seemed  enormous,  looking  back  to  the  beginning 
of  the  business.  From  a  price  per  head  the  trade  went 
to  a  pound  basis,  and  New  Mexico  lambs  have  been  sold 
as  high  as  Sl/2  cents  per  pound  at  the  loading  point.  For- 
tunes were  made  by  shrewd  speculators  who  went  to  the 
lamb  raisers  and  contracted  for  their  crop,  shipped  them 
into  the  feeding  districts,  and  retailed  them  to  the  feed- 
ers in  small  bands  at  good  profits. 

Coming  into  the  eastern  markets,  as  these  western-fed 
lambs  do,  at  a  time  wheft  the  normal  supply  is  at  the 
lowest  point,  they  find  a  ready  sale. 

Advance  in  Wool  Prices. — With  the  increase  in  mut- 
ton values  came  a  great  rise  in  wool.  During  the  years 
of  free  wool  the  western  wool-growers  were  forced  to 
sell  their  crops  at  rates  which  gave  them  no  profit  on 
their  investment.  Some  western  wools  dropped  as  low 
as  6  and  even  5  cents  a  pound,  and  the  average  for  sev- 
eral seasons  was  below  10  cents. 

In  the  last  few  years  the  growers  have  considerably 
increased  the  weight  of  their  shearing.  The  price  of  the 


HANDLING  SHEEP  ON  THE  RANGE  143 

product  has  more  than  doubled,  western  wool  having 
sold  as  high  as  25  cents  per  pound  in  the  summer  of  1909, 
which  was  the  maximum  for  recent  years. 

Increase  in  Cost  of  Production. — With  the  increase  in 
prices,  however,  has  come  a  material  increase  in  the  cost 
of  raising.  Herders'  wages  are  higher  than  they  were 
ten  years  ago.  Shearers  receive  much  more  than  they 
formerly  were  paid,  and  although  machine-shearing  has 
come  into  vogue  on  most  of  the  ranches,  enabling  the 
owners  to  handle  their  flocks  much  more  expeditiously 
than  in  former  years,  the  average  cost  of  the  two  meth- 
ods is  however  approximately  the  same.  'An  average 
hand  shearer  will  clip  sixty  to  seventy  sheep  per  day, 
while  the  improved  machines  enable  a  shearer  to  handle 
200,  and  some  exceed  this,  the  Australian  record  being 
316  sheep  in  an  eight-hour  day.  The  profit  in  machine 
shearing  is,  however,  in  the  rapidity  with  which  a  band 
can  be  shorn  and  returned  to  the  range. 

More  provision  is  made  for  winter  than  in  the  old 
days,  and  large  sums  are  spent  by  sheep-men  in  provid- 
ing haystacks  in  order  to  guard  against  losses  from  that 
source. 

Grazing  Leased  Land. — The  increase  of  settlers  upon 
the  open  ranges  has  forced  the  sheepmen  to  lease  pri- 
vate lands  on  which  to  graze  their  herds,  and  large  areas 
of  railroad  lands  upon  the  winter  ranges  in  the  mountain 
states  have  either  been  bought  outright  or  else  are  leased 
by  the  wool-growers.  They  banded  together  to  lease 
these  lands  in  huge  tracts,  and  then  parceled  the  ranges 
out  among  themselves,  according  to  previous  agree- 
ments. 

The  best  example  of  this  sort  of  co-operation  is  in 
the  celebrated  Red  Desert  country  in  western  Wyoming 


144  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

% 

and  eastern  Utah,  where  the  sheepmen  have  established 
themselves  upon  the  winter  ranges  to  the  almost  com- 
plete exclusion  of  all  other  classes  of  stock.  -  In  Califor- 
nia, Oregon  and  Washington,  especially  in  the  moun- 
tains, the  railroads  and  great  syndicates  that  control  the 
timber  lands  in  large  tracts,  have  all  leased  their  lands 
to  the  sheepmen  for  summer  grazing. 

This  naturally  has  added  to  the  expense  of  raising 
sheep,  but  the  men  who  have  been  long-headed  enough 
to  look  thus  far  into  the  future,  have  placed  their  busi- 
ness upon  a  solid  foundation. 

Double  Profit  From  Sheep. — The  wool-grower  has  one 
great  advantage  over  the  man  raising  cattle  in  that  he 
has  two  yearly  crops  upon  which  to  depend.  If  his  lamb 
crop  is  a  failure,  he  still  has  his  wool.  If  wool  is  low, 
he  can  meet  the  deficit  in  his  income  from  the  sales  of 
his  lambs.  Seldom  are  both  low  at  the  same  time.  Sheep 
are  also  more  closely  under  the  eye  of  the  herder  and 
thus  more  safely  cared  for  in  bad  weather  or  trying 
times.  The  Mexicans  have  a  saying  that,  "the  old  ewe 
even  in  her  death  leaves  -her  pelt  behind  to  pay  the 

funeral  expenses." 

r 

The  increase  is  also  much  heavier  than  in  cattle.  In 
the  southwestern  lambing  grounds  under  almost  ideal 
conditions  for1  lambing  a  careful  shepherd  has  been 
known  in  more  than  one  instance  to  lamb  and  "mark 
up"  a  full  100  per  cent  crop,  or  a  lamb  for  every  ewe.  In 
the  Salt  River  country  in  good  years  instances  have  been 
known  where  a  herd  of  2,000  ewes  has  averaged  105  per 
cent.  In  the  same  region,  on  alfalfa  and  lambed  under 
most  careful  supervision,  out  of  250  young  ewes  an  aver- 
age of  150  per  cent  or  375  lambs  has  been  raised.  Taking 


HANDLING  SHEEP  ON   THE  RANGE  147 

the  country  over,   however,   an   average   lambing  of  ?• 
per  cent  is  about  the  correct  figure. 

There  is  a  tendency  among  the  better  breeds  of  sto<A 
to  drop  down  on  this  average.  The  highest  percentage 
are  found  among  the  herds  containing  some  common 
blood.  These  animals  seem  to  bear  twins  and  even 
triplets  and  raise  them  with  great  regularity,  but  as  soon 
as  improved  rams  are  introduced  into  the  herd  the  num- 
ber of  twins  rapidly  decreases.  Not  only  is  the  number 
less  but  it  is  well  known  that  the  better  bred  ewe  is  not 
so  safe  a  mother  as  the  common  one,  being  apt  to  desert 
one,  if  not  both,  of  her  offspring. 

Time  of  Shearing. — Just  before  the  lambs  are  born 
the  sheep  are  sheared.  Some  owners  shear  twice  each 
year,  in  the  spring  and  again  in  the  fall.  There  is  a  great 
variety  of  opinion  as  to  the  wisdom  of  this  and  much 
depends  on  the  range  and  the  weather  conditions.  On 
brushy  rough  ranges  where  the  wool  is  likely  to  be  torn 
from  the  sheep's  backs  as  they  graze,  it  is  wise  to  shear 
twice.  On  open  ranges  where  this  does  not  occur  the 
sheep  can  carry  the  year's  fleece  with  little  loss,  and  as 
a  general  thing  shearing  but  once  a  year,  and  that  in 
the  spring,  is  the  prevailing  system.  In  California  they 
are  forced  to  shear  twice  owing  to  the  awns  from  the 
needle,  porcupine  and  foxtail  grasses  which  get  into  the 
wool.  Heavy  winter  rains  also  make  it  advisable,  the 
sheep  suffering  from  the  wet  wool. 

Serious  losses  often  follow  shearing  in  either  spring  or 
fall  from  sudden  changes  in  the  weather.  Of  late  years 
the  more  progressive  sheepmen  keep  on  hand  in  the 
camps  small  blankets  of  light  canvas  and  if  the  weather 
turns  stormy,  after  shearing  each  animal  has  a  blanket 
tied  to  its  back  which  takes  the  place  in  part  of  the  wool 


148 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


which  they  have  lost.  A  band  of  sheep  thus  covered 
offers  an  amusing1  signt  with  the  flapping  blankets  wav- 
ing in  the  wind,  but  they  have  saved  their  owners  many 
thousands  of  dollars  in  the  last  few  years.  In  the  old 
happy  days  of  the  business  this  would  have  been  laughed 


Pens  and  Yards  in  Which  Sheep  are  Dipped  and  Handled  in  Northern  Arizona. 

at,   but   today   the   careful    sheepmen    cannot   afford   to 
neglect  such  precautions. 

Weight  of  Fleece. — The  average  clip  varies  with  the 
states.  In  the  Southwest  the  average  is  probably  about 
6l/2  pounds,  while  in  the  Northwest  it  is  about  7l/2.  The 
average  for  California  is  close  to  9  pounds,  doubtless 
due  to  the  habit  of  semi-yearly  shearing,  which  seems 
to  make  a  more  rapid  growth  of  wool,  but  it  does  not 
command  so  good  a  price,  owing  to  its  short  staple. 


HANDLING  SHEEP  ON  THE  RANGE 


149 


Dipping. — After  the  spring  shearing  the  sheep  are 
generally  dipped  as  a  precautionary  measure.  The  dip- 
ping rids  the  sheep  of  ticks  and  lice  as  well  as  scab 
parasites  and,  it  is  said,  improves  the  grade  of  wool. 
This  latter  point,  however,  is  not  accepted  by  all  wool- 
growers  as  being  true. 

Time  of  Lambing. — The  ewes  are  bred  so  as  to  bring 
the  lambs  as  early  in  the  spring  as  will  be  safe.  In  the 


A  Band  of   Range   Lambs  and   Ewes   On   a  Hot   Day. 

Southwest  the  sheepmen  who  take  their  herds  to  the 
Salt  River  Valley  on  the  alfileria  deserts  breed  their  ewes 
to  lamb  in  February  and  March.  In  Arizona,  New 
Mexico  and  Texas  the  general  lambing  season  is  be- 
tween the  middle  of  April  and  the  middle  of  May.  In 
the  northern  ranges  the  lambing  season  is  somewhat 
later,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  lambing  grounds  are 
not  always  available,  being  too  wet  to  use  on  account  of 
late  snows. 


150 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


Lambing  Grounds. — The  lambing  season  is  the  sheep- 
man's anxious  period.  For  this  reason  the  ownership 
or  control  of  good  lambing  grounds  is  one  of  the  first 
requisites  to  a  successful  sheep  ranch.  The  lambing 
grounds  should  be  sheltered  spots  open  and  free  from 
underbrush  and  rough  places.  Water  must  be  plenti- 
ful and  easily  reached  and  the  grass  should  be  some  of 
the  early-growing  nutritious  kinds.  They  should  be 


The     "Galvanized    Ewe,"     or     Orphan     Lambs     Artificially     Fed. 

free  from  prairie  dog  and  badger  holes,  for  many  a  totter- 
ing little  lamb  has  fallen  into  such  a  hole  and  perished. 

Here  the  ewes  are  handled  with  the  greatest  care. 
Extra  herders  are  employed  in  order  that  the  bands  may 
be  broken  into  small  bunches.  The  ewes  are  left  undis- 
turbed, so  far  as  possible,  and  every  precaution  taken 
not  to  worry  or  frighten  the  animals. 

The  Herder's  Work. — A  good  herder  will  carefully 
watch  every  ewe  and  see  that  she  owns  her  lamb.  All 


.HANDLING  SHEEP  ON  THE  RANGE  151 

sorts  of  devices  are  used  for  this  purpose.  If  a  ewe  re- 
fuses to  own  the  little  one  the  herder  takes  it  up  in  his 
arms  and  carries  it  to  the  main  corral  or  pens.  There 
very  small  pens  just  large  enough  for  one  ewe  have  been 
built,  and  in  these  the  ewe  and  little  one  are  placed. 
Sometimes  a  small  pit  or  hole  is  dug  into  which  the 
ewe  and  lamb  are  put  and  an  old  sheepskin  or  gunny  sack 
placed  over  it.  In  the  darkness  the  lamb  will  probably 
find  what  is  necessary  to  satisfy  its  hunger  and  in  a  few 
hours  they  can  be  taken  out  and  turned  with  the  band. 
As  fast  as  the  ewes  claim  their  lambs  and  seem  to  be 
content  they  are  pushed  carefully  together^nd  thrown 
into  a  small  band,  called  the  "wet  band,"  but  for  some 
days  they  are  handled  very  tenderly  and  moved  as  little 
as  possible. 

Sometimes  the  mother  dies  and  there  is  an  orphan 
left  on  the  herder's  hands.  If  he  has  some  old  sedate 
ewe  he  probably  coaxes  her  to  take  the  orphan  in  addi- 
tion to  her  own.  Again  a  ewe  with  twins  will  not  be 
giving  milk  enough  for  both.  If  a  herder  is  looking  after 
his  band  he  will  have  one  eye  on  some  ewe  whose  lamb 
has  died.  By  means  of  the  dark  pit  or  the  small  pen  he 
will  force  her  to  mother  the  weakling.  Sometimes  he 
will  skin  the  dead  lamb  and  fasten  its  hide  to  the  twin, 
and  the  ewe,  knowing  her  lamb  wholly  by  the  sense  of 
smell,  noses  the  dead  one's  hide  and  accepts  the  stray 
without  further  ado.  Where  cows'  milk  is  available 
many  an  orphan  lamb  is  raised  on  the  bottle  or  by  other 
artificial  means.  Metal  barrels  supplied  with  a  line  of 
nipples  set  around  the  outside  are  rilled  with  milk  and 
the  lambs  taught  to  go)  to  it  for  food,  which  they 
readily  do. 

Marking,    Castrating   and   Docking. — This   process    is 


152          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

generally  done  at  the  same  time,  when  the  lambs  are 
about  three  weeks  old,  and  seldom  causes  any  losses 
among  them.  The  marking  is  done  as  with  calves,  and 
most  sheepmen  use  different  marks  for  the  sexes,  so  as 
to  aid  in  picking  out  the  wether  lambs  from  the  band 
when  they  are  wanted. 

The  castrating  is  also  done  exactly  as  with  calves, 
although  some  operators  after  cutting  off  the  end  of  the 
bag  or  scrotum  place  the  lamb  over  a  log  or  the  top  rail 
of  the  corral,  so  as  to  be  just  at  the  right  height,  grab 
the  protruding  testicles  with  the  teeth  and  pull  them  out 
until  the  cords  break.  In  this  way  the  work  is  performed 
with  remarkable  rapidity. 

In  docking,  the  tail  is  laid  over  a  log  and  with  a  sharp 
hatchet,  chisel  or  hunting  knife  is  taken  off  so  as  to 
leave  a  stump  about  four  inches  long.  Occasionally 
a  lamb  is  fly-blown  in  the  end  of  the  docked  tail,  but 
ordinarily  the  wound  heals  up  rapidly.  Nothing  is  put 
on  it  to  cure  it  unless  it  is  a  little  pine  tar,  which  some 
sheepmen  use  to  keep  the  flies  away. 

Night  Herding. — Often  it  is  necessary  to  leave  a  large 
number  of  ewes  out  all  night  on  account  of  the  lambs 
being  too  weak  to  follow  in  to  the  main  camp.  In  such 
cases  the  herder  works  them  as  closely  together  as  pos- 
sible and  a  night  man  looks  after  them  during  the  night, 
keeping  fires  burning  and  in  some  outfits  cowbells  and 
lighted  lanterns  are  hung  about  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
sheep  to  frighten  away  any  prowling  coyotes  or  bobcats. 
Many  owners  furnish  fireworks  to  be  set  off  at  intervals 
during  the  night  for  the  same  purpose. 

Following  the  Drop  Band. — Some  owners  employ  men 
especially  to  carry  in  the  smaller  lambs.  They  follow 
the  drop  band  about  and  as  it  works  toward  the  main 


HANDLING  SHEEP  ON   THE  RANGE  153 

camp  will  pick  up  any  freshly-born  lamb  and  while  the 
ewe  is  carried  along  with  the  herd  this  man  will  follow 
with  several  lambs.  When  they  reach  the  bed  ground 
the  lambs  are  placed  in  a  small  corral,  the  mothers 
picked  out  of  the  herd  and  placed  with  them,  and  by 
morning  they  have  generally  owned  their  progeny. 

Lambing    in    Tents. — In    Oregon    and    some    of    the 
other  northwestern  states  a  system  of  corral  lambing  is 


A   Lambing    Tent   in   Oregon. 

followed,  owing  to  the  danger  of  storms  during  that 
time.  In  this  case  a  large  tent  is  erected  inside  of  which 
the  ewes  are  placed  that  are  likely  to  drop  their  lambs 
during  the  night.  This  tent  is  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate a  good  many  sheep  and  often  two  sheet-iron 
stoves  are  used  to  keep  the  interior  at  a  comfortable 
temperature.  The  lambs  are  carefully  watched  and  each 
band  is  kept  close  to  the  tent  so  that  in  the  event  of  a 
storm  they  may  have  the  benefit  of  the  shelter.  In  this 


154  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

way  many  lambs  are  saved  that  in  the  usual  course  of 
lambing  would  be  lost  and  a  careful  herder  will  raise 
a  full  percentage  of  lambs  where  one  who  is  indifferent 
will  cost  his  employer  ten  times  his  wages  each  day. 

A  Critical  Period. — With  the  ordinary  herd  the  lamb- 
ing should  be  over  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  days,  when 
they  can  be  thrown  together  and  left  in  charge  of  the 
regular  herder.  Lambing  is  a  critical  period  for  the 
sheepman  and  a  few  careless  herders  or  an  unexpected 
storm  may  cause  him  to  lose  the  entire  year's  profits  in 
a  very  short  time.  For  the  owner  or  foreman  it  means 
twenty-four  hours  of  almost  constant  work  every  single 
day.  For  herders  it  means  long  hours  also  and  a  loyalty 
to  their  work  which  is  sometimes  paid  for  with  their 
lives  when  a  snowstorm  overtakes  them  and  rather  than 
abandon  their  charges  they  perish  with  them. 

Moving  to  Mountain  Pastures. — As  soon  as  the  lamb- 
ing is  safely  over  the  ewes  are  moved  into  the  high 
mountains  in  order  that  they  may  have  the  very  choicest 
of  green  food.  Sheep  do  not  feed  entirely  upon  grass 
but  eat  many  varieties  of  weeds  and  forage  plants.  Nor 
do  they  need  water  as  horses  and  cattle  do.  Sheep 
grazing  on  the  high  Alpine  meadows  will  go  for  sev- 
eral days  without  being  watered,  finding  all  the  mois- 
ture they  need  in  the  early  dews  and  in  the  soft  lush 
feed.  Of  course  much  depends  on  the  quality  of  the 
feed,  the  amount  of  dew  and  the  weather.  In  northern 
Arizona  I  have  known  bands  of  ewes  to  go  for  ten  days 
without  going  to  water,  and  when  they  did  reach  it 
they  drank  very  little. 

Weight  of  Lambs. — Lambs  raised  under  these  condi- 
tions grow  very  rapidly  and  at  eight  months  should 
weigh  more  than  65  pounds.  The  average  weight  of 


HANDLING  SHEEP  ON  THE  RANGE 


155 


southern  lambs  is  probably  a  little  less,  while  in  the 
Northwest  in  Idaho,  Oregon  and  Utah  lambs  will  no 
doubt  average  more.  But  taking  the  lambs  all  over  the 
western  ranges  65  pounds  will  be  very  close  to  the  ship- 
ping weight  when  they  are  loaded  for  the  feeding  points 
in  the  fall.  If  the  sheep  are  to  be  sheared  again  in  the 
fall  this  is  done  after  the  lambs  are  shipped,  and  then 
the  herds  are  sent  to  the  winter  range.  The  rams,  or 


In  Heavy  Timber   "Cuts"  May  Occur,   and  the  Band  Should  Not  Be  So  Large  As 
On  the   Open   Range. 

"bucks,"  are  placed  with  the  ewes  along  in  December, 
according  to  the  time  when  the  lambs  are  desired.  As 
the  ewes  carry  their  lambs  five  months  it  is  a  question 
for  each  owner  to  decide  for  himself,  according  to  his 
judgment  and  the  location  of  his  lambing  grounds. 

The  bucks  are  kept  by  themselves  during  the  sum- 
mer, several  owners  often  throwing  their  bucks  into  one 
band  and  employing  one  herder  for  the  purpose  or  rent- 
ing a  pasture  where  they  can  have  the  best  of  care. 


156  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

During  the  breeding  season  the  bucks  are  worked  in 
relays,  one  lot  being  turned  in  with  the  ewes  while  the 
other  is  kept  in  a  pen  and  fed  corn  and  sometimes  hay 
to  keep  them  in  the  best  of  condition. 

Shipping  the  Sheep. — Sheep  are  shipped  in  double- 
decked  cars  and  require  great  attention  from  the  ship- 
pers during  the  time  they  are  on  the  cars.  The  main 
thing  to  be  watched  is  smothering  when  they  are 
crowded  into  one  end  of  the  deck  by  the  sudden  move- 
ment of  the  train. 

Sheep  are  undoubtedly  the  least  intelligent  of  all 
domestic  animals.  For  this  reason  the  work  of  loading  a 
train  of  sheep  is  frequently  a  "very  tedious  operation. 
At  most  of  the  large  shipping  points  where  many  sheep 
are  handled  trained  goats  are  kept  for  loading  sheep. 
The  goat  gravely  walks  to  the  entrance  of  the  chute 
and  at  the  command  of  the  shipper  starts  slowly  up 
the  chute  to  the  car  door.  The  foolish  sheep  follow  him 
and,  once  inside,  the  goat  hurries  around  the  side  of  the 
car  and  coming  to  the  door  stands  there  while  the 
sheep  pour  in  a  stream  after  something,  they  know 
not  what.  When  the  load  is  all  in,  the  man  calls  the 
goat  and  he  slips  out  the  door  and  down  the  chute  to 
reoeat  the  operation  with  the  next  load. 

Sheep  are  subject  to  the  same  laws  for  unloading  and 
feeding  as  are  cattle,  although  there  is  grave  doubt  as  to 
the  wisdom  of  the  law.  the  frequent  loading  and  un- 
loading" beine  more  injurious  to  the  stock  than  the 
longf  hours  without  feed  and  water.  This  is  especially 
true  of  lambs,  which  will  not  feed  much  on  the  road, 
being-  cut  off  from  their  mothers  so  recently  that  they 
must  be  starved  into  trying  other  feed. 

Size  of  Bands. — In  handling  sheep  on  the  ranges  they 


HANDLING  SHEEP  ON  THE  RANGE  157 

are  generally  cut  into  bands  of  from  1,500  to  2,500  head, 
the  size  of  course  depending  upon  the  range.  If  it  is  rough 
and  broken,  a  band  of  1,250  ewes  and  their  lambs  is  all 
one  herder  can  safely  handle  without  losses  from  cuts. 
On  the  average  ranges  in  the  western  mountains,  a 
good  herder  can  care  for  2,500  dry  sheep  or  wethers, 
but  in  a  country  cut  up  by  canyons  and  broken  areas 
he  should  not  have  more  than  can  be  grazed  under  his 


A   Herder   Can   Look   After    Many    More    Sheep    On    An   Open   Range    Than    On   a 
Broken   Range. 

eye  at  all  times.  On  the  winter  ranges,  which  are 
mostly  on  the  open  deserts,  good  herders  successfully 
handle  as  many  as  3,000. 

With  each  outfit  is  a  camp  rustler,  or  tender,  who 
goes  ahead  of  the  sheep,  picks  out  a  camping  place, 
keeps  the  camp  stocked  with  food  and  supplies,  leaving 
the  herder  free  to  look  after  his  sheep.  Where  one 
owner  has  several  bands  one  rustler  can  take  care  of 
more  than  one. 

Bedding  Down  at  Night. — The  sheep  are  seldom  cor- 
ralled at  night,  being  simply  bedded  down  near  camp. 
Thus  handled  they  are  much  less  liable  to  loss  from 
smothering  in  wild  senseless  stampedes  during  the 
night.  Wild  animals  also  cannot  do  as  much  dam- 


A   Coyote-Proof   Fence   in  the   Wallowa   Mountains. 


Built  by  the  Forest  Service  in  Oregon, 


160  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

age  where  sheep  are  outside  of  a  corral  and  are  free  to 
run  from  danger  of  that  kind. 

A  watchful  herder  if  he  hears  his  sheep  run  during 
the  night  will  whistle  shrilly,  fire  a  shot  from  his  gun, 
or  shout  at  them.  The  sudden  noise  stops  their  mad 
flight  and  after  listening  a  moment  they  settle  down 
again  in  peace  and  quiet,  forgetting  their  fears. 

Sheep  in  Fenced  Pastures. — In  Australia  for  many 
years  past  they  have  been  raising  sheep  in  large  fenced 
enclosures.  One  mounted  herder  frequently  looks  after 
as  many  as  10,000  sheep  in  one  pasture  or  in  several 
contiguous  pastures.  Recently  the  Forest  Service  has 
been  experimenting  on  this  plan,  with  such  excellent 
results  that  many  sheepmen  who  have  the  necessary 
amount  of  land  are  doing  the  same  thing.  The  fences 
are  built  to  be  proof  against  attacks  of  coyotes  and 
dogs.  Bear  and  probably  wild  cats  can  go  through  or 
over  any  fence  that  can  be  built  but  the  coyote  and 
stray  dogs  are  the  most  dangerous  enemies  with  which 
sheepmen  have  to  contend. 

Raised  inside  such  enclosures,  it  has  been  settled  be- 
yond doubt  that  the  wool  crop  is  heavier,  the  lambs 
grow  faster  and  weigh  more,  the  loss  from  death  by 
accident  is  less  and  best  of  all  a  given  area  of  land 
will  carry  50  per  cent  more  sheep  under  fence  than 
when  herded.  The  average  loss  from  accidents  in  a 
herded  band  is  3  per  cent,  while  in  a  fenced  enclosure 
it  is  less  than  1  per  cent.  Lambs  grazed  under  a  fence 
weiehed  15  per  cent  more  than  the  same  grade  of 
lambs  grazed  under  a  herder  on  the  same  range.  Tak- 
ing all  these  things  into  consideration,  raising  sheep 
under  fence  where  the  cost  of  the  fence  is  between 
$200  and  $300  per  mile,  will  pay  good  interest  on  the 
outlay  for  fencing. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
GOATS  ON  THE  RANGE. 

The  raising  of  Angora  goats  in  the  last  few  years 
has  become  quite  an  industry.  In  the  West,  especially 
the  Southwest,  there  are  many  areas  well  fitted  for  graz- 
ing goats.  Contrary  to  general  opinion,  raising  goats 
is  not  a  matter  of  luck,  and  the  man  who  buys  a  band  of 
goats  and  expects  them  to  live  on  tin  cans  and  scenery 
will  be  badly  fooled. 

Kids  Are  Tender. — While  the  Mexican  goat  is  a  hardy 
animal,  the  Angora  is  very  delicate  in  many  ways  and 
requires  great  care  at  certain  periods  of  its  life.  The 
kids  are  especially  tender  for  the  first  few  weeks  and 
must  be  given  careful  attention  from  the  day  they  are 
born  up  to  six  weeks  of  age.  After  that  they  will 
take  care  of  themselves  with  little  trouble. 

Little  Herding  Needed. — Goats  require  little  herding, 
and  can  be  turned  out  on  the  ranges  and  left  to  them- 
selves day  after  day.  They  will  come  home  at  night  as 
regularly  as  the  milk  cows,  and  take  good  care  of 
themselves  against  wild  animals. 

Of  course  no  good  goat-owner  will  allow  his  goats  to 
look  out  for  themselves  all  the  time.  Still  the  con- 
stant attention  of  a  herder  is  not  needed  as  it  is  with 
sheep.  Goats  must  have  sheds  to  protect  them  from 
rain  and  storms.  They  seem  to  dislike  the  wet  and 

161 


162  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

many  are  lost  by  early  storms  while  away  from  the 
sheds.  On  account  of  the  nature  of  their  food — browse — 
goats  require  twice  as  much  salt  as  sheep. 

For  the  first  few  weeks  the  little  kids  are  not  allowed 
to  go  out  on  the  range  with  their  mothers  but  are  kept 
at  the  ranch  in  a  .yard  or  corral.  During  the  kidding 
time  the  does  are  handled  much. as  are  ewes.  Several 


A   Pen    of    Angora    Kids    in    New    Mexico. 

methods  of  taking  care  of  the  little  fellows  are  followed. 
Some  owners  stake  out  each  kid  with  a  small  string 
tied  to  a  leg  and  a  peg  driven  into  the  ground.  The 
does  seem  to  know  only  one  place  to  find  their  offspring, 
and  if  left  alone  the  kid  will  wander  off  and  the  doe 
never*  find  it  again.  By  tying  them  to  stakes  they  are 
held  fast  and  the  does  come  and  go  at  pleasure. 


GOATS   ON   THE  RANGE.  163 

Other  men  keep  them  in  pens,  where  the  top  rail  is 
just  high  enough  to  allow  the  doe  to  jump  over  while 
the  kid  cannot.  This  allows  the  doe  to  go  back  and 
forth  at  will,  and  is  of  course  much  less  trouble  for  the 
herder  than  staking  the  kids  out. 

It  is  generally  conceded,  however,  that  the  men  who 
use  the  staking  system  raise  a  much  higher  percentage 
of  kids  than  those  who  use  the  pen  method. 

There  is  nothing  more  beautiful  than  a  thousand 
little  Angora  kids,  lying  like  a  snow  bank  on  the  sunny 
side  of  an  enclosure.  With  their  beautiful  silky,  curly 
hair  and  long  pendulous  ears  they  are  about  the  sweetest, 
cleanest  things  imaginable. 

Common  Goats  Breed  Best. — Like  sheep,  however,  the 
higher  the  grade  the  less  number  of  twins  and  triplets. 
Take  a  band  of  common  Mexican  does  and  it  is  no  un- 
common thing  to  raise  150  or  more  kids  to  every  100 
does.  But  when  you  begin  to  improve  the  goats  the 
does  seem  to  lose  the  ability  to  bring  forth  more  than 
one  kid  at  a  time,  and  like  sheep  the  losses  from  still- 
born young  and  other  causes  during  pregnancy  is  much 
greater  in  the  high-bred  than  in  the  scrub  goats. 

Shearing  and  Dipping. — The  Angoras  are  sheared  gen- 
erally once  a  year,  as  with  the  sheep  much  depending 
on  the  range  and  the  weather.  Goats  are  not  subject 
to  scab  but  the  best  and  most  successful  goatmen  dip 
their  animals  each  spring  to  clean  out  the  lice,  ticks  and 
other  vermin  that  infest  them. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
DETERMINING  THE  AGE  OF  STOCK. 

Almost  everyone  knows  the  old  story  about  the  ten- 
derfoot who  took  up  the  bet  that  a  certain  young- 
appearing  cow  in  the  herd  was  "so  old  that  she  did 
not  have  a  single  front  tooth  in  her  upper  jaw."  Nat- 
urally he  lost. 

The  Mouth  Test  for  Cattle.— The  "toothing"  of  cattle 
on  the  range  is  the  means  of  settling  many  a  wager  as 
to  the  age  of  an  animal.  It  is  not  by  any  means  a  very 
satisfactory  method  because  of  so  many  variations  in 
the  age  at  which  different  animals  shed  their  milk  teeth 
and  get  the  permanent  ones.  This  is  due  to  accidents. 


Incisors  of  the   calf — a,   external   face;   l>,    internal   face. 

feed,  breeding  and  many  other  causes.  On  a  range 
where  cattle  eat  browse  they  break  off  their  calf  teeth 
much  earlier  than  otherwise. 

The  following  very  liberal  rules  were  adopted  by  the 
management  of  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition, 

164 


DETERMINING  THE  AGE  OF  STOCK 


165 


Teeth  of  the  cow  at  two  years,    a,   ex-        Teeth   of   the   cow   at    two   years,    nine 
ternal   face;    b,    internal   face.  months,     a,   external  face;  b,  in- 

ternal   face. 


Teeth  of   the   cow   at   three   years,    six 
months,     a,   external  face;   b,   in- 
ternal face. 


Teeth  of  the   cow  at   four  years. 


166  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Chicago,  in  1904,  not  as  representing  absolute  accuracy, 
but  in  the  direction  of  giving  the  feeder  the  benefit  of 
the  doubt: 

Twelve  Months :  An  animal  of  this  age  shall  have  all 
of  its  milk  (calf)  incisor  teeth  in  place. 

Fifteen  Months :  At  this  age  the  center  pair  of  incisor 
milk  teeth  may  be  replaced  by  center  pair  of  permanent 
incisors  (pinchers),  the  latter  teeth  being  through  the 
gums  but  not  yet  in  wear. 

Eighteen  Months :  The  middle  pair  of  permanent  in- 
cisors at  this  age  should  be  fully  up  and  in  wear,  but 
next  pair  (first  intermediate)  not  yet  cut  through  gums. 

Twenty-four  Months :  The  mouth  at  this  age  will 
show  two  middle  permanent  (broad)  incisors  fully  up 
and  in  wear,  and  next  pair  (first  intermediate)  well  up 
but  not  in  wear. 

Thirty  Months :  The  mouth  at  this  age  may  show  six 
broad  permanent  incisors,  the  middle  and  first  interme- 
diate pairs  fully  up  and  in  wear  and  the  next  pair  (sec- 
ond intermediate)  well  up  but  not  in  wear. 

Thirty-six  Months :  Three  pairs  of  broad  teeth  should 
be  fully  up  and  in  wear  a;id  the  corner  milk  teeth  may 
be  shed  or  shedding,  with  the  corner  permanent  teeth 
just  appearing  through  gums. 

Thirty-nine  Months :  Three  pairs  of  broad  teeth  will 
be  fully  up  and  in  wear  and  corner  teeth  (incisors) 
through  gums  but  not  in  wear. 

Horn  Buttons. — An  unfailing  method  of  determining 
between  two  and  three-year-old  steers  is  by  means  of 
the  little  button  on  the  tip  of  the  horns.  This  button  or 
rough  place  on  the  end  of  a  two-year-old's  horns  is 
simply  the  shedding  off  of  the  outside  shell,  and  so  long 


DETERMINING  THE  AGE  OF  STOCK  167 

as  there  is  any  of  this  roughness  left  as  a  button  on  the 
tips  the  animal  is  a  two-year-old  and  generally  the  teeth 
will  prove  it.  At  full  three  the  steer's  horns  are  smooth 
and  clean  to  the  very  tips. 

Rings. — The  rings  on  the  base  of  a  cow's  horns  are 
not  altogether  dependable  as  an  evidence  of  her  age. 
They  do  not  come  on  her  horns  until  she  has  dropped 
her  first  calf,  which  may  vary  considerably  with 
certain  animals.  On  an  average  the  addition  of 
three  to  the  number  of  rings  on  the  horns  up  to  seven 
will  be  approximately  correct,  making  the  cow  ten  years 
old.  After  that,  however,  it  is  more  an  estimate  than  an 
accurate  determination  of  the  animal's  age.  Bulls  and 
steers  have  no  rings  on  their  horns. 

Age  of  Horses. — The  horse  has  six  incisors  or  front 
teeth  and  two  tushes  or  canine  teeth  on  each  jaw,  be- 
sides the  grinders.  At  twelve  months  a  horse  has  six 
colt  teeth  or  incisors  on  each  jaw  which  remain  in  use 
until  the  animal  is  about  two  and  one-half  years  old.  At 
that  time  the  two  center1  incisors  are  shed  and  the 
permanent  teeth  are  coming  in. 

At  from  2  to  2^  years  the  two  central  milk  incisors 
are  replaced  by  permanent  incisors  and  these  are  up  and 
in  wear  at  3. 

At  from  3  to  3l/2  years  the  two  lateral  milk  incisors 
are  replaced  by  permanent  incisors  and  these  are  up  and 
in  wear  at  4. 

At  4  to  4j/2  the  corner  incisors  are  replaced  and  are 
up  and  in  wear  at  5.  The  tushes  come  in  at  the  same 
time. 

At  6  the  "cups"  or  marks  begin  to  disappear  from  the 
central  permanent  incisors. 


168  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


Teeth  of  the  horse  at  one  year.        Teeth  of  the  horse  at  two  years. 


Teeth  of  the  horse  at  three  years  off.    Teeth  of  the  horse  at  four  years  off. 


Teeth 


of  the  horse  at   six  years.  Teeth    of    the    horse    at    eight    years. 


DETERMINING  THE  AGE  OF  STOCK  169 

At  7  the  "clips''  or  marks  begin  to  disappear  from  the 
lateral  permanent  incisors. 

At  8  the  "cups"  or  marks  begin  to  disappear  from  the 
corner  permanent  incisors. 

The  wearing-away  process  is  shown  more  particularly 
in  the  "cups"  or  dark,  oval  rings  in  the  teeth.  This  at 
first  extends  clear  across  the  face  of  the  tooth,  but  as 
the  tooth  wears  down  the  ring  draws  in  until  finally  it 
almost  disappears.  It  is  as  if  there  were  a  small  dark- 
colored  inverted  cone  in  the  tooth.  As  this  cone  wears 
down  the  diameter  of  the  base  gradually  lessens  until  it 
becomes  a  mere  dot  or  point. 

The  feed  given  a  horse  has  much  to  do  with  the  wear- 
ing away  of  the  teeth.  There  is  a  tremendous  difference 
in  this  respect  between  horses  raised  in  an  alfalfa  coun- 
try where  very  little  or  no  corn  is  fed  and  those  raised 
in  a  corn-growing  region,  the  latter  showing  far  more 
wear  on  the  teeth.  In  Arizona  we  used  to  think  that 
as  between  two  horses,  one  born  and  raised  in  the 
mountains  and  the  other  in  the  sandhill  ranges,  the 
latter  showed  a  great  deal  more  wear  on  his  teeth, 
due  to  the  grinding  effects  of  the  sand  picked  up  in 
grazing. 

However,  after  eight  or  nine  years  the  determination 
of  the  age  of  a  horse  is  more  or  less  a  matter  of  guess- 
work, as  the  teeth  furnish  no  sure  evidence  of  the  animal's 
age. 

The  supra-orbits  or  soft  places  above  a  horse's  eyes 
are  one  test  most  commonly  used.  In  the  young  horse 
the  skin  here  is  nearly  level  with  the  rest  of  the  fore- 
head. With  advancing  age  it  begins  to  hollow  out  until 
in  a  horse  over  ten  or  twelve  the  cavities  are  very  deep. 
Also  the  ears  offer  another  means,  as  with  age  they  begin 


170  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


Teeth  of  the  Sheep — I,  at  one  year;  II,  at  eighteen  months;  III,  at  two  years 
three  months,  a,  external  face;  b,  internal  face. 


DETERMINING  THE  AGE  OF  STOCK 


171 


Teeth  of  the  Sheep— IV,   at  three  years;  V,   at  four  years,     a,    external  face;   b, 

internal   face. 


172  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

to  draw  nearer  together  and  stick  straight  up  and  seem 
to  have  less  flexibility  either  to  use  or  to  the  touch.  The 
face  also  about  the  eyes  and  on  the  forehead  will  show 
gray  hairs,  much  as  a  person  begins  to  get  gray  on  the 
temples. 

To  the  experienced  horseman  the  whole  face  gives  an 
indication  of  age  but  there  is  no  rule  that  will  aid  the 
ordinary  investigator  to  take  advantage  of  these  points. 
It  is  a  matter  of  experience,  judgment  and  in  most  cases 
pure  intuition. 

Age  of  Sheep. — Like  all  ruminants,  sheep  have  no 
upper  front  teeth. 

The  lamb  has  six  small  white  milk  teeth. 

Between  twelve  and  fifteen  months,  the  center  pair 
drop  out  and  two  permanent  incisors  come  in. 

At  twenty  to  twenty-four,  the  next  two  permanent  in- 
cisors come  in. 

At  thirty  to  thirty-six,  two  more  permanent  incisors 
appear. 

At  forty  and  over  the  last  permanent  pair  of  incisors 
— the  corner  pair — come  in  and  the  mouth  is  full. 

This  gives  the  sheep  eight  incisors,  two  more  than 
the  cow^^ horse.  &^<X  fcvct  /a-an/nx.  ^yhjLC^viJ- 

The  permanent  teeth  of  the  sheep  can  easily  be  dis- 
tinguished, for  they  are  darker  in  color  and  twice  the 
size  of  the  milk  teeth.  After  four  years,  the  only  way 
to  ascertain  the  age  of  a  sheep  by  the  teeth  is  from  the 
wear  on  them. 

Broken-mouthed  ewes  are  those  sheep  some  of  whose 
teeth  have  been  broken  off  in  feeding.  This  condition 
generally  begins  to  show  from  seven  years  and  sheep 
thus  injured  should  be  legged  out  of  a  band  and  sold 
for  fattening,  as  they  will  not  do  well  on  the  range. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
RANGE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

The  Government  rules  for  handling  stock  on  the 
National  Forests  require  sheep  and  goat  herds  to  be 
moved  frequently  and  not  bedded  down  in  one  place 
more  than  six  successive  nights.  Nor  is  a  lazy  herder 
allowed  to  dodge  the  spirit  of  the  rule  by  moving  off 
the  bed  ground  for  a  single  night  and  then  going 
back  to  it  again.  The  wisdom  of  this  regulation  is 
so  apparent  that  it  is  hard  to  see  why  there  can  be 
any  possible  objection  to  it. 

Objections  to  Repeated  Use  of  Bed  Ground. — The 
wear  and  tear  on  a  range  when  sheep  come  into  the 
same  bed  ground  night  after  night  is  great,  and  also 
the  sheep  undoubtedly  suffer  from  having  to  travel  back 
and  forth  every  day  across  a  stretch  of  range  which 
has  been  picked  over  again  and  again  until  the  very 
grass  roots  are  torn  out.  Many  losses  from  poisoning 
result  from  this  cause,  as  the  sheep  leave  the  bed 
ground  in  the  morning  hungry  and  eat  injurious  weeds 
and  forage  plants  which  they  would  not  touch  if  there 
were  anything  else  available. 

Progressive  sheepmen  who  own  or  lease  large  areas 
of  grazing  lands  will  not  allow  a  herder  to  bed  his  sheep 
twice  successively  on  the  same  spot,  but  have  him  seek 
a  new  location  each  night  and  if  possible  not  less  than 

173 


174  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

half  a  mile  from  the  one  on  which  he  last  camped.  This 
gives  the  range  an  opportunity  to  freshen  up,  and  adds 
greatly  to  its  grazing  value. 

Salting  Stock. — Cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  goats  all 
crave  salt.  Stockmen  estimate  that  on  an  average  a 
cow  should  consume  ten  pounds  per  year,  a  horse  about 
six  and  a  sheep  two  or  three.  They  will  of  course  use 
more  on  some  ranges  than  on  others,  depending  on  the 
natural  "licks"  or  alkali  spots  found  all  over  the  west- 
ern country.  In  many  places  like  the  Salt  River  Val- 
ley in  Arizona  and  along  the  Rio  Grande  in  New  Mex- 
ico, the  alkali  or  salt  in  the  water  satisfies  their  crav- 
ings so  well  that  animals  will  not  pay  any  attention  to 
salt  when  placed  where  they  can  reach  it. 

But  in  summer,  when  the  animals  are  in  the  high 
mountains  where  they  get  green  feed  and  fresh  water, 
they  seem  to  require  a  great  deal  of  salt.  As  a  general 
thing  they  will  consume  about  twice  as  much  salt  during- 
the  months  when  feed  is  green  as  they  will  after  it  has 
been  frosted  and  loses  its  freshness.  Stock,  especially 
sheep,  that  are  using  the  desert  ranges  in  the  winter 
where  their  chief  feed  is  browse  need  plenty  of  salt. 
Without  it  digestion  seems  to  be  difficult  and  they  do  not 
seem  to  do  so  well  as  where  they  can  obtain  all  the  salt 
they  want. 

Salt  and  Sulphur. — Plenty  of  salt  also  tends  to  keep 
down  the  worms  in  stock,  especially  where  a  2  per  cent 
weight  of  flowers  of  sulphur  is  mixed  with  it.  This  is 
always  a  good  thing  to  do  every  spring.  The  sulphur 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  salt  and  with  two 
pounds  of  sulphur  to  100  pounds  of  salt  the  animals  will 
eat  it  with  relish. 

Kind  of  Salt  to  Use. — For  salting  cattle  on  the  range 


RANGE   STOCK    MANAGEMENT  175 

where  it  must  be  placed  and  left  for  the  animals  to  use 
at  their  pleasure,  rock  salt  is  probably  the  most  eco- 
nomical and  satisfactory,  for  it  does  not  melt  and  wash 
away  with  the  rains  as  badly  as  fine  salt.  Again, 
salt-hungry  cattle  and  sheep  can  easily  be  killed  by 
dumping  out  a  few  sacks  of  fine  salt  and  letting  them 
have  all  they  want  of  it. 

On  the  Little  Colorado  River  in  northern  Arizona  a 
herd  of  1,800  salt-hungry  sheep  fresh  from  the  mountains 
was  turned  onto  a  wagonload  of  fine  lake  salt  which  had 
been  dumped  from  the  freighter's  wagon  in  a  long  white 
line.  Within  a  few  hours  half  the  band  was  dead  and 
many  more  were  so  sick  they  could  not  be  moved  for 
some  time. 

On  another  occasion,  two  wagonloads  of  the  same 
kind  of  salt  were  dumped  in  a  great  heap  on  a  favorite 
cattle-salting  ground  high  up  in  the  mountains  with  the 
intention  of  burying  it  in  trenches  or  ditches  so  as  to 
form  licks.  The  round-up  came  along  that  day  and 
threw  about  1,000  cattle  onto  the  salting  ground.  The 
cattle  crowded  about  the  heaps  of  salt  and  before  anv 
one  noticed  what  was  going  on  fifty  were  dead  and  man1 
more  very  sick.  This  cannot  happen  where  rock  salt  i  5 
used,  because  the  animals  can  not  get  enough  at  one 
time  to  injure  them.  On  the  other  hand,  when  salt- 
hungry,  stock  will  eat  the  fine  salt  in  great  quantities, 
chewing  it  down  as  they  would  oats. 

Effect  of  Excessive  Salt.— The  effect  of  too  much  salt 
seems  to  be  to  dry  up  the  juices  of  the  stomach,  "burn 
them  out,"  as  the  stockmen  say.  The  entire  stomach 
seems  to  be  as  dry  and  baked  as  if  the  animal  had 
been  dead  for  months. 

Fine  salt  is  somewhat  cheaper  than  rock  salt,  espe- 


176  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

cially  in  those  parts  of  the  West  where,  as  in  New 
Mexico,  the  great  salt  lakes  furnish  an  inexhaustible 
supply  of  coarse-grained  salt.  There  it  may  be  had 
for  the  hauling,  and  the  cost  of  course  depends  entirely 
on  the  distance  to  be  hauled. 

The  Salt  Lakes. — These  salt  lakes  are  peculiar  places, 
resembling  large  fresh-water  ponds  among  the  hills. 
The  water  is  seldom  more  than  a  foot  or  two  deep,  and 
beneath  it  lies  the  salt.  To  obtain  it  they  simply  drive 
the  wagon  out  into  the  water  and  shovel  in  the  salt, 
which  lies  loose  and  is  as  easily  dug  as  so  much  fine 
gravel.  A  hundred  wagons  may  load  at  one  such  lake 
in  a  single  day  and  within  a  short  time  the  hole 
made  has  filled  up  again.  Some  of  these  lakes  have 
been  so  used  for  300  years  and  today  the  surface  is  appar- 
ently at  the  same  level  as  when  the  first  white  men 
visited  them  back  in  1545. 

In  feeding  rock  salt  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  dump 
out  the  pieces  and  let  the  animals  lick  it  as  they  please. 
With  fine  salt  some  sort  of  trough  or  receptacle  must  be 
provided  in  which  to  place  it,  and  if  the  animals  are 
salt-hungry  but  a  small  Amount  should  be  placed  in 
reach  at  one  time.  One  objection  to  rock  salt  is  that 
it  takes  cattle  a  long  time  to  get  enough  of  it. 
Another  is  that  through  the  licking  process  they  get 
sore  tongues.  After  feeding  rock  salt  for  twenty-five 
years  and  watching  carefully  for  any  evidences  of  this 
among  range  cattle  at  the  local  slaughter  houses,  I  have 
yet  to  see  the  first  case  of  sore-tongue  due  to  this 
cause. 

Making  a  Salt  Lick. — The  plan  of  digging  long 
trenches  and  putting  salt  in  them,  mixing  it  with  a  little 


RANGE   STOCK    MANAGEMENT  177 

dirt,  makes  a  very  good  lick  and  the  salt  cements  to- 
gether into  a  solid  block. 

Many  stockmen  like  to  salt  their  cattle  in  their  own 
corrals,  so  as  to  teach  them  where  home  is.  Others  like 
to  feed  it  to  them  a  little  at  a  time  on  the  ranges,  keep- 
ing them  just  salt-hungry  enough  to  make  them  eager  for 
it.  Thus  they  learn  to  come  up  for  salt  every  time  they 
hear  the  call  or  even  the  rattle  of  the  wagon  containing 
the  salt. 

Being  under  herd,  sheep  can  be  salted  often  and  the 
fine  salt  is  better  for  them,  as  to  salt  2,000  sheep  en- 
tirely with  rock  salt  would  require  too  many  separate 
pieces. 

Salt-Hungry  Cattle  Raid  Camps. — In  the  mountains 
where  range  cattle  are  plentiful  and  generally  salt- 
hungry,  one  must  be  careful  about  leaving  a  camp 
open,  as  they  will  smell  the  salt  and  fairly  eat  the 
camp  up  in  their  search  for  it.  Salt,  sugar,  flour,  dish- 
rags  and  everything  else  chewable  will  find  its  way 
down  their  throats,  and  what  they  don't  eat  they  will 
spoil.  If  there  is  anything  more  discouraging  to  the 
camper  or  absolutely  hopeless  in  the  completeness  of 
the  ruin  than  a  camp  raided  by  a  bunch  of  salt-hungry 
cows  I  have  never  seen  it.  I  once  opened  the  door  of 
a  cabin  just  as  a  cow  went  out  of  a  single  sash  win- 
dow at  the  other  end.  She  had  probably  found  the  door 
open  and  stepped  in  to  look  for  salt.  A  gust  of  wind 
closed  it,  or  possibly  she  pushed  it  shut  herself  in  rum- 
maging about  the  little  room,  and  was  a  prisoner.  The 
interior  of  that  cabin  was  a  wreck. 

Another  time  a  bull  hunting  for  salt  worked  through 
the  flap  into  a  tent  which  had  a  small  opening  at  the  far 
end.  The  boy  who  occupied  the  tent  started  to  enter  the 


178          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

flap  and  the  bull  made  a  dash  for  the  other  end.  He 
forced  his  head  and  fore  feet  through  the  small  opening 
and  set  off  down  the  flat  carrying  the  tent  with  him, 
torn  from  its  moorings  as  if  struck  by  a  cyclone.  Even- 
tually he  tripped  over  it,  fell  down  in  a  heap,  and  in 
his  struggles  tore  the  tent  to  ribbons. 

Source  of  Friction. — The  salting  of  stock  on  the  open 
ranges  is  an  everlasting  source  of  friction  among  stock- 
men using  the  range.  Each  man  waits  for  his  neighbor 
to  salt.  The  more  enterprising  men  salt  liberally  and 
their  shiftless,  selfish  neighbors,  knowing  full  well  that 
their  cattle  can  and  will  hunt  the  salt  ground,  no  matter 
how  far  it  may  be,  sit  back  and  profit  by  the  other  man's 
liberality. 

The  most  successful  plan  is  to  have  the  salting  done 
by  some  .man  hired  to  handle  the  whole  process  and 
each  man  stand  his  pro-rata  of  the  cost,  based  upon 
the  assessed  number  of  cattle  each  has  on  the  range. 

This  of  course  can  only  be  accomplished  through  co- 
operation, in  many  instances  of  which  a  few  men  do 
it  all. 

Salt  is  money  well  invested.  It  makes  the  animals 
more  content  on  the  ranges,  keeps  them  on  their  own 
range  instead  of  wandering  all  over  the  country  look- 
ing for  salt,  gentles  them,  teaches  them  to  know  the 
presence  of  man,  undoubtedly  does  much  to  assist  in 
digesting  certain  feeds,  and  to  a  certain  extent  keeps 
down  the  worms  which  are  found  in  the  stomach  of  al- 
most every  four-footed  domestic  animal. 

Experiments  With  Salt. — The  report  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry  for  1902  gives  the  results  of  some 
experiments,  which  are  very  instructive,  on  the  value 
of  salt  for  animals.  In  France  two  selected  bands  of 


RANGE   STOCK    MANAGEMENT  179 

sheep  were  taken,  each  of  as  near  the  same  weight  and 
breeding  as  was  possible,  weighed  carefully  before  the 
experiment  and  placed  in  separate  pens.  Here  they  were 
fed  the  same  feeds  and  handled  alike.  One  band  was 
fed  no  salt,  while  the  other  was  fed  three-fourths  of  an 
ounce  daily  with  the  other  feed. 

'When  the  experiment  was  closed  the  sheep  that  had 
been  fed  salt  weighed  5^4  pounds  more  and  sheared  1^4 
pounds  of  wool  each  more  than  the  band  which  re- 
ceived no  salt.,  The  wool  of  the  salted  sheep  was  also 
of  more  excellent  quality  and  better  fibre  than  that  of 
the  others. 

Bulls  on  the  Range. — The  question  of  the  number  of 
bulls  needed  on  the  ranges  is  a  perplexing  one  and,  like 
salting,  is  the  cause  of  a  great  deal  of  hard  feeling  among 
stockmen.  Most  of  the  western  range  states  have  laws 
calling  for  at  least  one  good  grade  bull  for  every  twenty- 
five  breeding  cows,  but  I  am  quite  certain  that  the  court 
records  of  every  range  state  may  be  searched  in  vain 
for  a  single  case  where  it  has  been  enforced. 

Number  of  Bulls  to  Cows. — Without  plenty  of  bulls, 
there  can  certainly  be  no  hope  for  reasonable  increase. 
In  the  large  pasture  outfits  in  Texas  and  New  Mexico 
where,  as  a  rule,  the  bulls  are  kept  away  from  the 
cows  part  of  each  year,  not  less  than  five  good  active 
young  bulls  are  considered  enough  for  100  cows.  Nor  is 
this  a  bull  too  many  on  the  open  ranges  where  the 
cattle  scatter  out  into  small  bunches  and  especially  in 
a  rough  country  where  the  bulls  do  not  as  a  general 
thing  follow  the  cows. 

Age  of  Usefulness. — Bulls  seem  to  lose  their  vigor 
early  in  life,  and  a  bull  ten  years  old  is  in  the  judgment 
of  most  stockmen  past  his  prime.  From  three  to  seven 


180          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

is  the  age  at  which  they  are  at  their  best.  After  that 
the  sooner  they  are  sold  the  better,  for  they  get  heavy, 
lazy  and  sullen,  keeping  by  themselves,  hanging  about 
the  water  holes  and  not  attending  to  business  as  they 
should.  Probably  many  readers  will  recall  instances 
where  a  bull  has  been  used  for  many  years  after  he 
passed  the  ten-year  mark,  like  the  famous  Sir  Bred- 
well  for  instance,  but  these  animals  were  kept  up,  fed 
well  and  not  allowed  to  exhaust  their  vitality,  as  bulls 
will  on  the  range.  Moreover  they  had  the  cows 
brought  to  them  for  service  instead  of  having  to  hunt 
them  up  on  the  range. 

Many  stockmen  believe  that  an  old  bull  begets  more 
male  than  female  calves,  but  careful  investigation  has 
not  proved  this  to  be  the  case.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
oft-repeated  assertion  that  an  old  bull  is  not  so  sure  a 
getter  as  a  younger  animal. 

Dehorning  Cattle. — Bulls  should  not  be  dehorned  so 
close  as  to  make  them  muleys,  as  they  need  their  horns 
as  a  means  of  defense  gainst  steers  or  stags.  Put 
certainly  every  bull  turned  out  on  the  range  and 
allowed  to  run  loose  with  the  other  cattle  should  have 
at  least  four  inches  of  the  sharp  points  taken  off  his 
horns.  This  is  easily  done  by  either  throwing  or  snub- 
bing them  up  to  a  strong  post  or  fence  and  taking  the 
points  off  with  a  pair  of  d  orning  clippers  or  an  or- 
dinary meat  saw. 

Many  a  good  bull  has  bLv,ii  Kined  or  injured  so  as  to 
be  unfit  for  use  all  the  rest  of  the  season  by  having  a 
pair  of  stiletto-like  horns  driven  into  him  by  some  fighter 
among  the  other  bulls.  With  the  points  gone  but  the 
stubs  still  there  they  can  fight  and  protect  themselves 
but  can  not  do  much  harm  to  one  another. 


RANGE    STOCK    MANAGEMENT  181 

Dehorning  the  Calves. — Many  stockmen  dehorn  their 
calves  as  they  are  branded,  using  a  small  dehorning  tool 
made  especially  for  the  purpose.  When  the  calf  is 
less  than  five  weeks  old  the  little  button  of  the  horn 
can  be  taken  off  very  readily  by  clipping  the  hair  around 
it  and  then  rubbing  it  with  a  stick  of  caustic  potash. 
Ordinary  concentrated  lye  will  also  cut  them  out.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  get  the  caustic  or  lye  into  the 
eye  of  the  animal.  As  few  range  calves  can  be  handled 
at  this  early  age,  the  dehorning  tool  is  the  most  satis- 
factory method  of  ridding  the  animal  of  its  horns. 

Value  of  Dehorned  Cattle. — Dehorned  cattle  on  the 
markets  bring  from  $1  to  $3  per  head  more  than  the 
same  grade  of  horned  animals,  so  that  the  process  pays 
the  raiser  of  the  animal  very  well.  Besides  this,  they 
ship  better,  more  will  go  in  a  car  and  easier,  are  free 
from  the  fearful  slashes  and  cuts  made  by  the  horns 
of  aggressive  animals  when  bunched  together,  and  feed 
together  more  like  a  lot  of  sheep  than  anything  else. 

Naturally  the  best  way  to  get  rid  of  horns  is  to 
breed  them  off,  but  until  that  time  comes  dehorning 
when  the  animal  is  small  is  the  next  best  means  of 
meeting  the  demand  for  the  hornless  animal. 

Marking  Cattle. — Several  years  ago  considerable  mat- 
ter appeared  in  the  western  stock  papers  about  a  brand- 
ing fluid  used  in  Australia.  It  was  said  to  be  quite 
as  satisfactory  as  a  hot  iron  for  placing  a  brand  on 
an  animal,  and  much  less  painful  and  did  not  injure  the 
hide. 

The  fluid  was  composed  of  several  acids  and  corro- 
sive ingredients  and  when  used  on  a  single  animal 
where  there  was  plenty  of  time  to  do  it  carefully, 
would  kill  the  hair  and  leave  a  brand  on  the  hide 


182 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


which  was  fairly  plain.  The  idea  was  either  to  paint 
it  on  with  a  brush  or  daub  it  on  with  a  wooden  brand 
similar  to  those  used  by  the  sheepmen  in  "paint  mark- 
ing." 

In  practical  use,  with  a  corral  full  of  calves  to  be 
branded,  it  was  a  failure.  The  stuff,  if  put  on  thick 
enough  to  penetrate  the  hair,  ran  all  over  the  animal 
and  made  a  great  blotch.  It  was  easily  kicked  over  by 
a  struggling  calf  and,  worst  of  all,  in  the  rush  and  hurry 


"Hog    Tied" — A    (Horse    Tied  ODown    for    Branding    or    Doctoring. 

of  branding  time,  it  got  into  the  men's  eyes  and  made 
much  trouble.  Then  too  the  calves  after  being  so 
branded  would  crowd  against  one  another  in  the  pen 
and  smear  the  fluid  all  over  themselves. 

No  one  ever  tried  it  a  second  time  and  the  hot  iron 
is  still  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  branding  range 
animals. 

Ear  and  Lip  Tattoo. — There  are  several  methods  of 
marking  animals  in  the  ear  by  means  of  a  punch  in 


RANGE   STOCK    MANAGEMENT  183 

which  the  outline  of  the  brand  or  number  is  made  by 
a  lot  of  needle  points  similar  to  the  punch  used  by 
railroad  agents  to  mark  tickets  when  sold.  These  mark- 
ing punches  are  filled  with  a  preparation  of  India  ink 
which  outlines  the  brand  in  an  indelible  manner.  These 
of  course  can  only  be  used  with  gentle  animals  and 
are  not  intended  for  range  use.  Recently  the  Federal 
Government  has  considered  this  method  for  marking 
cavalry  and  artillery  horses  and  the  Government  mules. 
The  mark  is  placed  on  the  animal's  lip  and  will  be  much 
better  as  a  means  of  identification  than  the  hoof  num- 
ber which  must  be  frequently  renewed. 

Ear  Marking. — Each  owner  has  some  ear  mark  re- 
corded as  a  part  and  portion  of  his  brand.  On  the 
round-ups  and  for  a  great  part  of  the  year  the  ear  mark 
is  the  only  means  of  identification,  unless  an  animal  is 
caught  and  held  for  examination.  This  is  of  course 
due  to  the  long  hair  in  winter,  and  until  the  animals 
have  shed  off  in  the  spring  and  the  hair  is  short  the 
brand  is  not  easily  read.  The  mark  is  readily  put  in 
with  a  sharp  knife  and  causes  the  animal  but  little 
pain.  Many  range  states  have  laws  regulating  the 
amount  of  the  ear  which  may  be  taken  off,  the  thought 
being  to  protect  the  honest  man  by  refusing  the  use  of 
a  mark  that  like  a  "grub,"  for  instance,  simply  cuts  off 
the  whole  ear  and  leaves  nothing  of  the  mark  that  may 
have  once  been  there. 

Castrating. — With  the  operation  of  marking  goes  the 
one  of  castrating  the  animal.  This  is  a  rough  and  ready 
piece  of  surgery,  but  seldom  results  in  an  injury  to  the 
animal.  The  old  Californians  who  raised  the  animal 
as  much  for  the  hide  as  for  the  meat  never  trimmed 
their  bulls,  believing  that  the  hide  was  heavier  and 


184          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

the  beef  product  greater.    With  them  it  was  a  question 
of  quantity  and  not  quality. 

Usual  Method. — A  calf  is  never  too  small  to  be  cas- 
trated. The  usual  method  is  to  clip  off  a  small  piece  of 
the  end  of  the  scrotum  or  bag  and  squeeze  out  the  tes- 
ticles, and  either  pull  them  out  with  main  force  until 
the  cord  breaks  off  itself  or  else  far  enough  so  as  to  cut 
it  off  with  a  knife.  Some  men  advocate  cutting  a  small 
hole  out  of  which  the  testicle  can  be  pulled,  as  is  done 
in  castrating  a  colt,  but  this  frequently  causes  trouble, 
owing  to  the  closing  up  of  the  small  opening  and  a 
formation  of  pus  inside,  which  often  results  in  the 
animal's  death. 

Keeping  Tab  on  Sex. — In  the  old  days  of  heavy 
brandings  where  the  owners  kept  track  of  the  sex, 
it  was  the  usual  custom  to  keep  the  end  of  the  scrotum 
for  a  tally  on  the  bull  calves,  and  a  piece  of  the  ear 
taken  off  for  the  heifers.  As  a  general  thing,  however, 
taking  the  usual  run  of  brandings  year  after  year,  the 
difference  between  the  sexes  is  so  small  as  to  amount 
practically  to  nothing.  Sometimes  in  the  spring  round- 
ups the  heifer  calves  will  run  away  ahead  of  the  bulls, 
but  on  the  fall  work  the  balance  swings  back  and  on  the 
final  footings  the  proportion  of  each  is  close  to  one- 
half. 

Ear  Marks. — Cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  are  ear- 
marked, but  horses  are  seldom  so  disfigured,  although 
I  have  seen  many  ear-marked  western  range  horses, 
generally  mares,,  especially  in  the  days  when  only  the 
geldings  were  sold  or  used.  Following  are  some  of  the 
prominent  marks  used.  The  combinations  which  can 
be  made  are  almost  innumerable : 


RANGE   STOCK    MANAGEMENT 


185 


R  L 


R  L 


R  L 


Crop  left,  under-half  crop  right. 
Grub  left,  under-hack  right. 
Over  half-crop  each  ear. 
Crop  right,  swallow-fork  left. 

Under-bit  right,  under-slope  left. 
Crop  and  under-bit  each  ear. 
Crop  and  mortise,  or  "saw-set.' 
Over  and  under-bit. 
Under-slope  right,  saw-tooth  left. 
Sharp  right,  hole  left. 


The  "jingle  bob,"  as  explained  on  page  382,  is  made 
by  cutting  into  the  top  of  the  ear,  close  to  the  head,  and 


186          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

just  deeply  enough  to  break  the  back  of  the  ear  and  al- 
low it  to  hang  down  alongside  the  animal's  head.  It 
is  a  most  unprepossessing  mark  indeed. 

Brand  Books. — Following  are  pages  taken  from  the 
Brand  Books  of  different  live  stock  associations: 


J.  A.  CAIN  Montrose 

Cimarron  range 
Anywhere    Whole  ear 


HERMAN  CHANEY,  Ridgway 

East  side  Cow  Creek 
Anywhere    Whole  ear 

Horses  same  anywhere 

A.  R.  CALKINS,  Montrose 

Bald  Hills  range 
right  side    uuderbit  left  split 
right  ear 

J,  M    DAVIS,  Olathe 

Big  Cimarron  range 
left  side  or  anywhere  on  ani- 
mal   over  slope  each  ear  H'or- 

sessarne  either  shoulder 

E.  M.  DAWES.  Montrose 

Horsefly     range 
right  shoulde  r 

Wm.  A.  DOAK,  Mcntrose 

'   Tabegu^che  range 
left  side,    crop  both  ears 

FRANK  DONLAVY.  Olathe 

Cimarron  range 
left  hip       Also 


Mrs.  SARAH  E.  and  Mrs.  AGNES  DAWSON 
Montrose,  Cimarroa  range 

and    •Rf59i    Square 

•E3E3H   crop 

both  ears    horse  brand  same  and 


From  the  Brand  Book  of   a   Colorado  Cattle   Association. 


RANGE   STOCK    MANAGEMENT  187 

C.  L.  SCHOONOVER- 

on  left  hip 


Cattle  Branded  .  .    ., 

VJ    LX       and  ribs. 

Upper  bit  in  each  ear. 
Horses  Branded        2        on  left  shoulder. 

J.  P.  WHITE- 

>   i^ 

on  left  ribs 


Cattle  Branded 

and  hip? 

M,  C.  DURFEE— 

C3  •*          on  left  ribs 
Cattle  Branded  J   ft      and  hip. 

Horses  same  brand  on  left  shoulder. 

Some  cattle  T^    T~\  .  r 

branded       L^    U     on  Ieft  nbs- 

Ear  mark  for  cattle,  hole  in  each  ear,  split  out. 
J.  F.  ANDRESS- 


Cattle  branded  ^j        on  right  hip. 

T.  M.  PARKS— 


Cattle  branded  f-'         on  n'ght  hip 

VL^          and  ribs. 

Horses  same  brand  on  right  shoulder 
Ear  mark  for  cattle,  both  ears  undercropped. 

Sample   Page  From  a  Western  Live   Stock  Association   Bra:.d   Ecok. 


188 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


New  Brands  Applied  For 

The  following  brands  and  earmarks  have  been  offered 
for  record  with  the  Live  Stock  Sanitary  Board  and  are  here- 
with advertised  in  order  that  cattlemen  may  be  given  an  op- 
portunity of  entering  protest  against  any  that  in  their  opin- 
ion conflicts  with  existing  irons. 

Each  new  brand  applied  for  will  appear  twice  in  this 
paper,  and  all  such  applications  will  be  withheld  from  action 
for  ten  days  after  second  publication. 

LIVE  STOCK  SANITARY    BOARD,    PHOENIX,    ARIZ. 
NEW  BRANDS  APPLIED  FOR,  NOV.  25,  1910. 


C- 
I 


XITOQ 


X 


oo 


GO 


00 


00) 


DO) 


C  —Left  ribs.  H.— Left  thigh. 
J   C   Baker,  Hereford,  Ariz. 

C.— Left  hip.  H.— Left  thigh. 

Victor  Ochoa,  Calabasa.  Ariz. 

C.— Left  ribs.  H.— Left  thigh. 
Bernardo   Caviglea,   Arivaca, 
Arizona. 

C.— Right  ribs.   H.— Right  shoul- 
der      William     Brooks,     Clifton, 
Arizona. 

C  — Left  hip.  H.— Left  hip. 

Frank  C.     Smith,     Kirkland. 

Arizona. 
C.— Left  ribs.  H.— Left  shoulder. 

Wm.    F.     Wallace,  Flagstaff, 

Arizona 

C.— Right  hip.  H.— Right  thigh. 
F.  Klass,  Apache,  Ariz. 

C._Right  ribs.  H.— Right  shoul- 
der.   Bud    Shoop,    Springerville, 
Ariz. 

C.— Left  ribs. 

A.  W.  Childress,  Bonita,  Ariz. 


Sample    Page    of    New    Brands    Advertised    in    an    Arizona    Paper,    Showing    the 
Method   Used  to   Avoid  Issuing   Conflicting   Brands. 


RANGE   STOCK    MANAGEMENT 


189 


-MB 

Poeky  Pord, 
Otero  Co. 

to 

0«org«  oundoroon.si 
Collbran, 
Mean  Co. 

*r 

wm.  MoOlnnls, 
Uogote, 
Cone  Jos  Co. 

'  * 

A 

Hal«7  *  could, 
wolbaoh,   Nebr.: 
UJggllJgiJ;  Go.  Col. 

n 

T.  ».  snyile, 
Uaaters, 
weld  Co. 

T 

i 

Mr  s.  Daisy  Dunnlng- 
.ton,  woloott. 
Eagle  Co. 

• 
i 

Wm.    T.    SKelton, 
quinsy  Bldg.,  Den- 
ver -.Range.  Teller  Co, 

1 

Mr  s  .  c  .  r  .  woodruff  , 
01  a  the, 
Hontroee  Co. 

Mr. 

1 
©0 

Hbble  Paahe  Vuagnl- 
a'AX,  Oleneyre, 
Larlaer  Co. 

^ 

GO 

Kerch  X.  Kennedy. 
Uonte  Vlata, 
Rio  Grande  Co. 

V 

cg> 

Samuel  R.  Cone, 
Duel  a, 
llontrose  Co. 

T 

03 

j.  P.  oailoway, 
Norwood,  Range, 
s^itlgugi  *  Mont- 

0 

0    P.  Beldeloan, 
Flagler, 
Kit  Carson  Co  . 

i- 

03 

Haley  &  Could, 
Wolbaoh,  Nebr. 
Range,  noutt  Co.  Col 

3 

E.  A.  Mitchell, 
Parlln, 
ounnlson  Co. 

V 

Ethan  A.  Traoy 
MI*. 
weld  00. 

S 

rustaoe    R.  parsoni 
Parker  , 
Douglas  Co. 

wt 

1 

oauit. 
Weld  Co. 

rmS 

OQ> 

C     J.  Combe. 
Steamboat  Spga   , 

ROUtt   CO. 

O 

Theodore  Lang. 
Ft.  Collins, 
Larinsr  Co 

ft 

00 

Chaa.  Huber, 
Meeker, 
Rio  Blanco  Co. 

i 

sab  l  no  S.  Torre  a, 
Trinidad, 
baa  Anlaas  Co. 

X 

L     H.   Sloholtz.Jr. 
Estes  Park. 
Larimer  Co. 

£ 

OCD 

Jas.  w.  Page  t  wnj 
Doak.Montrose, 
uontrose  Co. 
Transfer  . 

/-H 

TT 

J    W.   Sullivan, 
Whitewater, 
Mesa  Co. 

0 

Oeorge  Ulckalsen, 
snyder, 
Morgan  Co 

s 

Samuel  Habaker, 
Elizabeth, 
Elbert  Co. 

u 

T     D.   Lorlmer, 
Kotohkios, 
Delta  Co. 

A 

OCD 

Alex.  Calhoun, 
Tellurlde, 
ransfSW  "P"51  °°- 

* 

00 

IB  ?R.I%fiSi.c" 

Delta  Co 

S 

Hike  sabaatiano 
Trinidad, 
Lea  Anlnaa  Co 

t 

C.  J.  JaoobB, 
Sterling,  LoganCo 
Transfer  . 

<* 

}{     S.  Ellas, 
Dlzon.wyo.  Range, 

ROUtt   CO.    C010. 

4 

t    E.  Frost, 
Sterling, 

7 

Steve  Post, 
Sulphur, 

K 

<ats> 

M     J.   Winter, 
Nucla, 

• 

\ 

Rio  Blanoo  Co. 

[J 

^ 

Lewis  L.  Wilson, 
ranpa, 

ROUtt   CO. 

i 

C     P.  Larson, 

Ploeanoe, 
Rio  Blanoo  Co. 

M 

OCD 

j.  P.  Oallegos, 
San  Luis, 
Costllla.  Co. 

Q. 

De  Witt  Dale, 
Slater, 
Houtt  Co. 

M 

C    D.  Hoyer, 
Allison, 
La  Plata  Co. 

.%_ 

Rudolph  Andersen, 
Lily. 

Routt  CO. 

0 

W.  I.  Woehler, 

Canon  City, 
Fremont  Co. 

s£ 

John  Johnson, 
Slater, 

ROUtt    CO. 

o 

The  Arrowhead  Live- 
stock Co  .  , 
Swallows  .Pueblocc 

1 

Ernst  Burkhardt, 
Silver  Cllffe, 
Cuater  Co. 

-c^ 

OS) 

Benjamin  Williams, 
Korwood, 
San  Ulguel  Co. 

0 

<DO 

Oeorge  I(elden, 
^ifSrand.  Co. 

^ 

OCD 

Bulkeley  well*, 

™SS«— 

Jk 

Catarlnm  M.Mora, 
Trinidad, 
Las  Anlaaa  Co. 

l51] 

cyrua  Hall, 
Alemosa, 
Conejos  co. 

^ 

0X3 

*.  J.  Daniels, 
Ploeanoe  , 
~.«HS  **••*»<>  Co. 

A 

Filar  uondragon, 
San  Luis, 
costllla  Co. 

^ 

OQ 

Frank  Wise, 
Oranada, 

1 

J.  W.  C.  Shepherd, 
ueeker  , 
Rio  Blanoo  Co. 

03 

"Kftrs- 

V 

John  Hagerman. 
Rolyoke  , 
Phillips  Co. 

Harry  B.  Lester, 
Clark, 
Routt  Co. 

i 

Chaa.  U.  Hobb»t- 
Colorado  spgn.  , 
El  Paso  Co. 

0 

CO 

Chas.  Y.  shlpaan, 
Doylevllle, 
ounnleon  Co. 

& 

CQ 

E.  H.  Roberts, 
Pueblo, 
pueblo  Co. 

o 

03 

Llzzlo  B.  sylvestej 
Monte  vista, 
•Rio  Orande  Co. 

Q- 

00 

Mary  C.   Mitchell, 
Denver;  Range, 
orand  Co. 

(T 

A  Page   From   the   Colorado   Brand   Book. 

The  Colorado  law  allows  the  owner  of  a  brand  to  place  it  anywhere  on  the 
animal  he  desires, 


190 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


%, 

00 

Urbano  Jlorfln. 
Coyote, 
I.B.C.          I.H.H. 

u*\ 

OQ 

A.  Brian, 
Portal  es, 
R.R.S.C. 

C//VAA 

CO 

1187  Panltaer. 

Carlabad. 
L.R.C.          I.H.H. 

1R 

(DO 

Picmrdo  Orloate, 
ehaperito, 
L.R.C.         L.S.H. 

LIMC 

€X3> 

Abble  i.  Meek. 

•Mk, 

l.S.R.H.0. 

tK 

OO 

Inlseto  Jfoaero, 
Paraje,- 
L.H.H. 

UD 

oo 

Cerapio  Lorato, 
Mineral  Hill. 

I.H.C.           I.H.H. 

UR+ 

OO 

J?  P.  Lewie, 
Weed, 

L.S.R.H.C.      L.H.H. 

UJft. 

oo 

J.  D.  Hiddleton. 

Monument, 
L.S.E.H.C.      I.H.H. 

J* 

00 

Milan  Shellenberger 
Hodeo. 
I.S.H.C.    &  H. 

uJfo 

00 

3.  M.  Tatea, 

Tularoea, 

I.  S.  P.  E.G. 

'U^ 

00 

Jeeua  H.  Ponerp, 
Kelly, 
L.R.C.          L.H.H. 

(JJ/b 

OQ 

Battle  J.  Bavla, 
Lower  Feaaaocv. 

B.H.P.8.C.   I.S.H.H, 

URl 

OQ 

ffllllaa  PranXlln, 
Weed, 
L.B.C.  -       L.H.H. 

Wo 

00 

Platt  &  Coleman, 
Sieaega. 
l.R.C.          I.H.H. 

»£ 

00 

Inez  Beach, 
Kontunent  , 
L.H.R.C. 

o^  
UMO 

OG 

Platt  It  Coleman. 
Clraega, 

I.J.R.C.     I.H.H'. 

UR2. 

OOX 

Clarence  Curtis, 
Inna, 
L.S.R.H.C.     L.H.H. 

U-0 

OO 

Hubbell  &  MOM, 
KL  Paso.tezas, 

I.S.R.H.C. 

URZ 

©Q> 

A.  X.   Tier. 

Dexter, 

irorw 

OQ> 

Bayid  D.  Wright. 
lordsburg, 

I.S.R.H.C. 

VR5 

00 

A.  L.  Haynes, 
Hope, 
L.R.C.         L.S.H.H. 

iy 

00 

Pablo  Dorta&o, 

9an  Mleruel, 
L.H.O.       I.H.H. 

US 

00 

Battle  6.  erewo. 
Hillaboro. 
L.R.O. 

LP 

oo 

J.D.w.  «,  B.E.TeedM 
las  Vegas, 
I.H.C. 

L£ 

oo 

ftafael  Taldei, 
San  Kafael, 
L.H.C. 

LP 

0@ 

John  .7^  Kltohell, 

Mlmbree. 
R.R.3.C. 

& 

oo 

Mrs.  M.  S.  Howard. 
«llff, 
L.R.C.         L.H.H. 

IS> 

OO 

R.  C.  Paultaef, 
Carlsbad, 
R.R.C.        H.H.H. 

*& 

00 

Chlsholn  &  Sraig, 
Kagdalena, 
B.R.C. 

bP 

oo 

Pulton  J.   Cox, 
Lake  Valley, 
8.R.C.          I.H.H. 

GO 

ID- 

OG 

Stanford  &  Langford 
Hagernan, 
L'.H.C/ 

UP 

€53 

F.  11,  Belong, 
Cooks, 
L.R.C. 

US 

00 

Thoaas  R.  *ewkirk, 
Poison, 
R.R.C.          R.S.H. 

A  Page  From  the  New  Mexico  Brand  Book. 

The  first  column  shows  the  brand,  the  next  the  earmark.  The  initials  below 
the  owners'  names  refer  to  the  brand  location:  L.  R.  C.,  left  ribs  cattle;  L. 
H.  H.,  left  hip  horses,  etc. 


RANGE   STOCK    MANAGEMENT 


191 


MARKS    AND    BRANDS 


BRANDS 

Posi- 
tion 

NAME 

P.  0.  ADDRESS 

DATE  OP  RECORD 

•"H 

9 

Frank  Randall 

Woodside,  Emery  Co. 

Jan.         20,1903 

€ 

9 

H.  C.  Farrer  and  A.  L. 
Tomlinson 

Green  River,  Emery  Co. 

June         5,  1903 

f 

10 

Elijah  Maxfiel.d 

Loa,  Wayne  Co. 

July       17,   1302 

1 

9 

Frank  Hamblin 

Kanab,  Kane  Co. 

Nov.        17,  1902 

M- 

8 

Edson  McBeth 

Payson,  Utah  Co. 

Jan           14,  »go3 

fX 

H 

Matthew  G.  McMurtrie 

Virgin,  Washington  Co. 

June       26,  1902 

5~ 

§9 

William  M.  Hafey 

Westwater,  Grand  Co. 

Nov.        12,  1902 

S 

'5 

M.  Slaymaker 

Mapleton,  Utah  Co. 

August'26,  1903 

5B 

9 

P.  G.  &  Adam  Burt 

Spanish  Fork,  Utah  Co. 

March      3,  1903 

Sj- 

IJ 

W.  S.  Twombly 

Castle  Rock,  Summit  Co. 

June       19,  1903 

3" 

10  15 

W.  S.  Twombly 

Castle  Rock,  Summit  Co. 

August  26,  1903 

© 

8 

Thos.  W.  Clayton 

Clear  Creek,  Carbon  Co. 

July           3.1903 

5. 

13  '4 

Lorenzo  C.  Leavitt 

Santa  Clara,  Washington  Co. 

Jan.         26,  1903 

'S 

9-15 

Richard  R.  Fitzgerald 

Woodland,  Summit  Co. 

June        14,  1902 

U-l 

10 

Heber  Hoggard 

American  Fork,  Utah  Co. 

Feb.       25,  1903 

7 

8 

G.  H.  Fox 

Lehi,  Utah  Co. 

Oct.          3,  1902 

A   Page  From   the   Utah   State  Brand   Book. 

The  number  indicates  the  location  of  the  brand  on  the  animal.  Thus  14 
refers  to  the  right  ribs  of  cattle. 

Brands. — To  find  distinctive  brands  many  changes 
in  the  original  letters  of  the  alphabet  have  been  made  and 
to  each  has  been  given  some  name. 


192  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

NAMES  OF  BRAKDS.- 

This  character  — •  placed  above  or  be- 
low a  letter  is  called  a  bar,  as 
"Bar  A",  S  "s  Bar".  A  quarter  cir- 
cle is  used  thus :  £  and  the  character 

x^x, 

XX  is  used  the  same  p  "Rafter  R", 

and  is  called  a  "rafter"  or  "half 
diamond  TT-"VV""becomes  the  "Flying  Wn, 
f\f\P  the  "Running  W" ;  J\^  the  "Walk- 
ing A",  QQ  the  "Lazy  B"f  J-  the 
"Cross  J",  (J)the  ^Double  D"  or  "Buok- 
le",  Q  the  "Circle  Dot".  /\  This  is 
called  "Open  A",  made  thus  /\  "Dia- 
mond A",  and  thus  -A.  "Cross  An. 


Again,  the  names  of  the  owners  sug- 


RANGE   STOCK    MANAGEMENT  193 

gest  many  "brands.   Pete  Coffin 
smears  the  following  all  over  the 
ribs  of  his  cattle:  I  PI 
The  characters  r\T indicate  that  the 
cows  wearing  them  belong  to  Mrs.Eatie 
Barr  (Z  T  Bar). 

Mr.  Bujao,  whose  neighbors  will  in- 
sist on  pronouncing  his  name  bootjack, 
meets  them  more  than  half  way  by  ad- 
opting it  for  his  brand  thus: 


Mr.  Henry  Potts  chose  for  his  brand 
this  character; 


The  young  Philadelphian  who  comes 
west  to  go  into  the  cow  business  keeps 


194  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

the  state  of  his  nativity  ever  green 
in  his  remembrance  by  adopting  the 
Keystone  for  his  brand : 

Old  Jack  Barber,  whose  cattle  graze 
all  over  the  range  in  one  state, 
weaves  his  name  into  his  brand  thus: 

BR     > 

Mr.  Key  takes  it  for  his  brand  0 1 

or  sometimes  HO  is  placed  below  it  in 
remembrance  of  the  seductive  game  of 
Keno,  thus:  0NOJL 

Mr.  Bell  does  the  same  f\  .  So  do  Mr 
Hart,  CO  Mr.  Head,  V  J  Mr.  Fish 
and  Mr*  Spear  < 


RANGE    STOCK    MANAGEMENT  195 


.1, 


The  Lone  Pine  Cattle  Co.  j.   ,  and 

the  Pitchfork  Cattle  Co. §=:,  "both 

have  brands  that  wherever  seen  indi- 
cate their  owners1  names.  Down  -in  New 
Mexico  one  well-known  cattleman  who 
had  four  daughters,  May,  Susan,  Anna 
and  Jennie,  met  the  situation  "by  re- 
cording  for  them  /V\AY  ,  SUE  ,  ANA 
an(i  JEN  ,   "k*16  "three  letters  "being 
on  the  left  ri"bs,  while  the  single 
letter  of  the  family  name  S  was 
placed  on  the  hip  of  all  of  them. 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  if  any- 
body^ calves  were  "branded  the  ones 
following  these  "brands  were. 


196  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

CHMaiHG  BRANDS. - 

There  are  few  "brands  that  cannot  be 
"worked  over",  as  the  saying  goes, 
and  under  the  akilftil  manipulations 
of  the  "artistic  rustier11,  made  into 
some  other  fcraad*""}-^!?  H  L)  is  easily 
turned  intoQ-{](  Block  Bar  Block),,  L  S 
into  LJ.  8  ,  while  the  "Plying  U"  "\f 
can  he  changed  to  either  ~\P  ( 7  UP)  or 

(P  "tf  P)«   The  famous  "Open  Eat" 
"brand -TT. can  he  easily  made  the  "Fly- 
ing T"JTLand  the  "Gross  H" -f-f-^^ire- 
ly  lost  its  identity  when  turned  into 
a  "Window  Sash",  FRH  •  Probably  two 
of  the- most  notorious  and  ingenious 
jobs  ever  attempted  were  the  changing 


RANGE    STOCK    MANAGEMENT  197 

of  the  well-known  "brand  of  the  Capi- 
tol Syndicate  Co,  of  Western  Texas, 
commonly  known  as  the  X  I  T  outfit, 

*  the  "Star  and  Cross", 
and  the  equally  well-known  "Hashknife" 
"brand  of  the  Aztec  Cattle  Co.  of  Ari- 
zona f  rom  ""T^to  ^TP)^   ,  called  a 
"Cow  Drinking  out  of  a  Water  Trough". 
The  joker  who  did  it  was  caught  at  it. 

Naturally  this  sort  of  stealing  can- 
not "be  done  very  long  or  in  very  large 
numbers  without  detection.   If  the 
stealer  is  willing  to  take  a  few  he 
will  probably  not  be  detected,  but 
let  his  brand  show  up  on  too  many 


198  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

animals  during  the  roundups  and  it  will  quickly  be  no- 
ticed. 

The  most  of  such  "working  over"  or  changing  of 
brands  was  done  with  a  "pot  hook,"  or  "running  iron," 
a  piece  of  Y%-  or  ^-inch  iron  rod  about  18  inches  long, 
with  either  a  hook  or  ring  turned  in  one  end.  This  was 
carried  on  the  saddle  under  the  rider's  leg,  and  heated 
red  hot  in  a  fire.  A  brand  could  easily  be  "worked  over," 
using  the  iron  as  a  painter  does  his  brush.  In  some 
range  states  the  carrying  of  such  running  irons  was 
prohibited  by  law. 

Picking  Over  Brands. — One  method  of  changing  the 
brands  was  to  "pick"  the  old  brand  over.  The  brand 
from  a  hot  iron  shows  because  the  hair  is  burned  off  the 
hide.  So  the  "picker"  takes  an  animal  with  a  brand  like 
the  letter  p  ,  for  instance,  and  with  the  point  of  his  knife 
blade  deftly  picks  off  the  hair  until  he  has  a  brand  on 
the  animal  which  shows  up  like  this  ^  and  is  good  un- 
til the  growth  of  the  hair  covers  it  over. 

Picked  brands  are  only  used  where  the  animal  can  be 
shipped  or  driven  out  of  the  country  very  soon  or  else 
sold  to  some  butcher  for  immediate  slaughter.  They 
must  of  course  pass  the' -scrutiny  of  a  keen-eyed  in- 
spector, and  if  he  is  in  a  hurry  or  the  day  is  cloudy  or 
it  is  late  in  the  evening  he  may  likely  pass  it  over  un- 
noticed. If  he  does  discover  it  the  man  virtuously  swears 
he  knows  nothing  of  it  and  the  animal  is  turned  out  of 
the  corral  and  allowed  to  go  back  to  the  range. 

There  is  not  so  much  of  this  kind  of  work  done  now 
as  there  was  in  the  olden  times,  when  men  with  large 
herds  did  not  see  some  of  their  cattle  for  two  or  three 
years  at  a  time  and  they  strayed  miles  away  from  their 
proper  ranges. 


CHAPTER  X. 
COST  OF  RUNNING  STOCK  ON  RANGES. 

In  the  last  few  years  the  cost  of  handling  stock  on 
the  open  ranges  has  very  materially  increased,  due  to 
many  causes.  In  the  palmy  days  of  the  business  it  was 
estimated  that  the  cost  of  running  between  1,000  and 
2,000  cattle  on  the  range  where  the  owner  himself  looked 
after  them  was  under  $1  per  head  per  year.  As  there 
was  a  certain  amout  of  fixed  expense  no  matter  whether 
the  number  was  1,000  or  10,000,  this  cost  was  some- 
what decreased  as  the  number  of  stock  increased,  but 
commonly  $1  was  very  close  to  the  average. 

When  there  was  plenty  of  range,  and  the  country 
was  open  for  the  stock  in  all  directions,  excepting  for 
the  cattle,  there  was  very  little  investment  outside  of 
a  good  home  ranch,  the  chuck  wagon  and  saddle  horses. 
As  settlers  came  in  stockmen  were  forced  to  buy  water- 
ing-places along  streams  to  keep  the  water  open,  and  to 
fence  up  pastures  for  saddle  horses  and  bulls,  requiring 
large  outlays  for  wire  and  land.  The  overstocking 
forced  them  to  make  more  provision  for  winter  feed- 
ing, especially  in  the  North,  where  the  winters  are 
more  severe  than  in  the  Southwest. 

All  these  things  required  a  greater  investment  and 
thus  caused  an  increase  in  the  running  expenses.  On 
the  open  ranges  today,  on  a  basis  of  1,000  cattle  the  aver- 
age annual  cost  per  head  is  probably  more  than  $2 ;  with 
small  bunches  much  more. 

Cost   of    Grazing   Cattle. — In    New    Mexico   and    the 


200  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Texas  Panhandle,  where  there  are  many  large  fenced 
pastures,  it  is  figured  at  the  present  time  that  the  an- 
nual cost  of  handling  one  grown  animal  is  close  to  $3. 
This  includes  taxes,  general  ranch  expenses,  lease  of 
lands  (from  3  to  10  cents  per  acre  per  year)  or  inter- 
est on  money  invested  in  the  lands,  salting  and  all  the 
thousand  and  one  little  items  that  make  up  the  ex- 
pense account  of  a  cattle  ranch. 

The  year-long  charge  for  grazing  cattle  on  the  Na- 
tional Forests  runs  from  30' to  60  cents,  with  an  average 
of  50  cents,  counting  those  above  six  months  of  age  at 
the  time  of  entering.  On  the  large  Indian  reserva- 
tions, where  the  cattle  are  grazed  under  leases  from 
the  Indians,  the  charge  is  much  more,  running  as  high 
as  $3.20  on  some  reservations,  where  the  competition 
for  feed  is  keen.  The  average  is  probably  over  $1.25 
per  head  per  year,  counting  everything  that  walks. 

Cost  With  Sheep. — The  cost  of  handling  sheep  on 
the  ranges  has  gone  through  the  same  rising  process 
as  with  cattle.  It  also  varies  considerably  with  the 
locality,  there  being  a  great  difference  in  running  cost 
between  the  southwestern  and  the  northwestern  sheep 
herds. 

In  1890  an  estimate  made  by  several  sheep  men  of 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona  placed  the  annual  cost  per 
head  for  handling  range  .sheep  in  those  territories  at 
from  60  to  75  cents.  Some  Mexican  owners  who  were 
able  to  handle  their  herds  with  cheaper  help  gave  their 
cost  at  not  over  50  cents  per  head.  Today  the  average 
is  probably  not  far  from  $1.50  per  head.  This  does  not 
include  depreciation,  losses  or  interest.  In  1908  sev- 
eral large  sheepmen  in  Montana  estimated  their  aver- 
age annual  cost  at  about  $1.50  per  head,  and  with  small 


COST   OF   RUNNING   STOCK   ON    RANGES  201 

herds  it  is  probably  more  than  $2,  leaving  out  deprecia- 
tion, losses  and  interest. 

The  Montana  sheepmen  estimated  that  their  average 
investment  for  lands,  sheep  and  improvements  equaled 
$12  for  each  sheep  they  owned. 

In  that  region,  owing  to  climatic  and  other  causes, 
the  sheepmen  have  been  forced  to  make  heavy  invest- 
ments in  lands,  especially  hay  lands.  Many  of  them, 
foreseeing  the  inroads  of  the  settlers,  also  purchased  or 
leased  large  areas  of  railroad  lands  on  which  to  handle 
their  stock  part  of  the  year.  Added  to  this  there  is 
the  annual  dipping  cost,  which  years  ago  was  hardly 
considered,  and  many  other  expenses  which  seem  to 
follow  improvement  in  breeding,  and  it  is  not  hard  to 
see  where  the  extra  expense  piles  up. 

Basis  of  Estimates. — In  all  these  cost  estimates  no 
account  whatever  has  been  taken  of  the  item  of  dete- 
rioration. Few  sheepmen  when  asked  to  estimate  the 
cost  of  running  a  band  of  sheep  think  to  add  to  that 
cost  the  yearly  reduction  in  value  of  the  herd  due  to 
increasing  age.  This  I  believe  may  be  placed  at  more 
than  10  per  cent  of  the  investment  per  year  and  be  very 
conservative. 

Take  a  band  of  1,000  two-year-old  ewes.  Up  to  and 
including  their  sixth  year  they  may  be  considered  as 
in  their  prime.  After  that  time  they  deteriorate  very 
rapidly.  The  band  becomes  a  "broken-mouthed"  band 
and  should  be  sold  just  as  soon  as  a  buyer  can  be 
found.  They  are  not  safe  for  range-grazing  purposes, 
although  on  soft  feeds  like  alfalfa  they  may  be  used  for 
a  year  or  two  more.  Thus  the  band  at  five  years  may 
be  worth,  we  will  say,  $5  as  breeding  ewes,  while  at 
seven  and  over  they  are  well  sold  at  from  $2  to  $2.50. 


202  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

The  same  holds  good  of  bucks  and  a  $50  buck  at  seven 
years  of  age  may  be  said  to  have  passed  the  period  of 
his  usefulness  to  the  rangeman,  and  is  to  be  sold  for 
whatever  he  will  bring. 

Right  here  is  where  many  a  sheepman  has  found  his 
figures  on  the  profits  of'  the  business  sadly  at  variance 
with  the  final  results — and  he  never  knew  just  where  it 
went. 

Investment  Necessary. — Twenty-five  years  ago  the 
total  investment  of  a  New  Mexico  sheep  outfit  running 
20,000  'sheep  on  the  open  range,  apart  from  the  initial 
cost  of  the  sheep,  was  not  more  than  $2,000  all  told,  and 
consisted  of  a  few  burros,  a  wagon  or  two  and  the  neces- 
sary camp  equipment.  The  owner  did  not  own  an  acre 
of  land  or  even  a  corral.  When  he  sheared  he  threw  up 
a  brush  corral  somewhere  on  the  range  as  close  to  the 
shipping  point  for  his  wool  as  possible,  and  the  rest 
of  the  year  they  were  at  home  wherever  the  pack  burros 
were. 

In  the  Northwest  the  large  land  grants  belonging  to 
the  Pacific  railroads  rent  readily  to  stockmen  for  graz- 
ing purposes  at  an  average  of  about  $40  per  section  of 
640  acres,  or  close  to  7  cents  per  acre.  In  the  South- 
west, in  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  Southern  California, 
the  average  is  about  $20  per  section.  A  striking  exam- 
ple of  what  grazing  lands  will  bring  when  put  up  for 
competitive  bids  is  found  in  the  prices  received  by  the 
Reclamation  Service  for  the  grazing  upon  what  is 
known  as  the  "Strawberry  Valley  Project,"  in  Utah. 
The  matter  is  fully  discussed  on  page  222. 

Other  Cost  Factors. — But  because  it  only  costs  $2  a 
year  to  run  cattle  on  the  ranges,  it  must  not  be  assumed 
that  a  three-year-old  steer  has  cost  his  owner  but  $6. 


COST   OF    RUNNING    STOCK    ON    RANGES  203 

Losses  from  bad  years,  short  calf  crops,  disease,  cattle 
thieves  cut  deeply  into  the  profits.  Free  grass  is  a 
myth.  The  eastern  farmer  who  complains  of  the  com- 
petition from  cattle  and  sheep  "raised  on  free  Govern- 
ment grass"  forgets  these  items  which,  alas,  cannot  well 
be  counted. 

Cost  of  Raising  Sheep. — The  report  of  the  United 
States  Tariff  Board  on  the  cost  of  raising  sheep  on  the 
western  ranges  contains  some  very  interesting  and  in- 
structive information  which  should  be  closely  studied 
by  every  sheepowner  desirous  of  reducing  his  expenses 
to  a  minimum,  because  it  shows  just  where  the  money 
goes  in  handling  sheep  in  the  western  range  states. 
Tables  1  and  2  are  taken  from  this  report. 

The  average  annual  labor  cost  per  head  of  sheep,  in- 
cluding the  food  and  lodging  of  the  employes,  is  about 
82  cents  in  our  western  states,  about  7  cents  in  Australia 
and  23  cents  in  South  America.  In  the  West  the  labor- 
ers include  superintendents,  herders,  camptenders, 
cooks,  general  ranch  hands  and  extra  men  employed  at 
lambing  time.  Of  the  total  average  charge,  which  is  82 
cents,  about  63  cents  goes  to  the  first  three  classes,  who 
are  usually  employed  throughout  the  year. 

Table  1  shows  the  rates  of  wages,  including  board, 
paid  in  the  different  states.  The  varying  nationality  of 
the  men  employed  has  much  to  do  with  the  difference 
which  affects  both  wages  and  food  costs.  In  the  South- 
west, for  example,  where  Mexican  labor  is  employed, 
the  average  monthly  wages  of  a  herder  range  from 
about  $22  to  $35  and  the  cost  of  his  food  ranges  from 
about  $11  to  $14,  making  a  total  average  monthly 
charge  of  from  about  $33  to  $49;  whereas  in  Idaho  the 
average  monthly  wages  of  a  herder  are  about  $48  and 


204 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


the  cost  of  his  food  about  $18,  making  a  total  charge  of 
about  $66.  Owing  to  several  governing  conditions  the 
actual  difference  in  cost  is  much  less  than  the  figures 
indicate. 

TABLE  1-AVERAGE  MONTHLY  WAGES  PAID,  INCLUDING  BOARD. 


States. 

Superintendents. 

Camptenders. 

Herders. 

Extra  labor. 

Arizona.  .. 

cAts. 

84  80 

C^fts. 
50  38 

C^ts. 
49  18 

Ce^ts. 
49  38 

California  
Colorado.. 

94.05    . 
76  24 

68.75 
45  83 

54.18 
41  44 

55.13 
37  20 

Idaho  

101  98 

69  03 

66  66 

65  70 

Montana 

102  22 

68  39 

62  70 

62  72 

Nevada  . 

111  50 

64  93 

59  42 

63  02 

New  Mexico  
Oregon.. 

66.21 
85  52 

39.61 
62  52 

33.03 
58  04 

32.72 
57  87 

Utah  

89  08 

63  06 

64  34 

62.13 

Washington  
Wyoming.. 

89.60 
113  80 

61.33 
69  00 

60.85 
64  64 

57.54 
66  61 

The  region  

^^,90.72 

59.82 

52.40 

50.37 

Factors  Equalizing  Costs. — By  studying  these  tables 
it  will  be  noted  that  while  the  southwestern  sheepmen 
procure  their  labor  for  a  much  lower  rate  than  in  the 
northwestern  states,  it  requires  more  of  them  to  the 
1,000  sheep,  thus  equalizing  the  matter.  In  New  Mex- 
'ico,  for  instance,  it  requires  an  average  of  one  twelve- 
month man  to  each  741  sheep,  at  a  monthly  cost  in 
wages  and  board  for  herders  of  $33.03  per  man.  In 
Montana  it  requires  but  one  twelve-month  man  to  every 
1,556  sheep  at  a  monthly  cost  in  wages  and  board  of 
$62.70  for  each  herder,  or  almost  double  the  wage  cost 
in  New  Mexico.  However,  owing  to  the  difference  in 
the  number  of  men  required  the  net  difference  is  against 
the  New  Mexico  sheepowner,  for  the  labor  cost  per  head, 
as  shown  by  the  table,  is  54  cents  for  Montana  and  56 
cents  for  New  Mexico. 


COST   OF    RUNNING    STOCK   ON    RANGES 


205 


TABLE  2-SHOWING  GENERAL  AND  RELATIVE  COSTS  OF  RAISING  SHEEP 
IN  THE  WESTERN  UNITED  STATES  IN  THE  FLOCKS  INVESTIGATED 
BY  AGENTS  OF  THE  TARIFF  BOARD. 


States. 

Rate  of 
income 
on 
capital. 

Aver- 
age 
value 
of 
sheep 
per 
head. 

Value 
per  head 
of 
juildings 
and 
mprove- 
ments. 

Labor 
per  head 
includ- 
ing 
shearing. 

Mainte- 
nance 
per 
head. 

Miscellane- 
ous and 
selling  ex- 
pense per 
head,  in- 
cluding 
provisions. 

Total 
expense 
per 
head. 

Arizona  

5.8 

$4.75 

$0.89 

$0.79 

$0.15 

$1.13 

$2.07 

California  .... 

12.3 

4.39 

.79 

.55 

.81 

.99 

2.35 

Colorado  
Idaho  

7.6 
.8 

4.15 
5.11 

.44 
1.02 

.60 
.59 

.26 
.96 

.90 
1.30 

1.76 
2.95 

Montana  

5.6 

4.15 

1.42 

.54 

.54 

.97 

2.05 

Nevada  

11.3 

5.13 

.95 

.76 

.36 

1.11 

2.23 

New  Mexico  .  . 
Oregon  

7.2 

4.7 

3.97 
3.62 

.59 
1.30 

.56 
.56 

.18 
.63 

.91 
.80 

1.65 
1.99 

Utah  

9.9 

5.08 

.71 

.69 

.38 

1.20 

2.27 

Washington.. 

17.3 

3.71 

.87 

.74 

.62 

.77 

2.13 

Wyoming  — 

4.0 

4.44 

.75 

.72 

.36 

1.01 

2.09 

Total         .  (• 

•)     «  2 

$4.41 

$0.89 

$0.63 

$0.46 

$1.02 

$2  11 

States. 

Average 
monthly 
cost  of 
provis- 
ions per 
man. 

Percent- 
age of 
increase 
(lambs). 

Capital 
per 
head. 

Average 
number 
of   sheep 
to  each 
12-month 
employe. 

Aver- 
age 
pounds 
per 
clip. 

Net 
charge 
against 
wool  per 
pound. 

Selling 
price 
per 
ound  of 
wool. 

Arizona  

$13.88 

59.3 

$5.64 

780 

7.1 

$0.105 

$0.156 

California  — 

14.75 

76.4 

5.18 

1,225 

9.1 

.071 

.145 

Colorado  

11.60 

61.9 

4.59 

853 

6.1 

.087 

.142 

Idaho  

18.43 

67.2 

6.13 

1,223 

6.3 

.173 

.181 

Montana  

17.52 

71.9 

5.57 

1,556 

7.6 

.138 

.185 

Nevada  

14.42 

74.6 

6.08 

1,349 

6.5 

.041 

.152 

New  Mexico.. 

11.21 

57.7 

4.56 

741 

6.6 

.083 

.139 

Oregon  

13.38 

79.6 

4.92 

1,641 

8.9 

.109 

.141 

Utah  

19.00 

72.5 

5.79 

1,130 

7.5 

.093 

.173 

Washington.  . 

14.60 

92.5 

4.58 

1,231 

9.3 

.005 

.118 

Wyoming  

19.00 

62.4 

5.19 

1,250 

7.2 

.124 

.157 

Total  jt 

egl5.25 

70.3 

$5.30 

1,097 

7.3 

$0.109 

$0.159 

This  difference  in  the  number  of  men  employed  is 
due  to  several  causes.  The  ranges  in  the  Southwest 
are  somewhat  rougher,  water  and  feed  scarcer,  the  labor 


206  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

is  not  quite  so  efficient,  and  the  older  sheepmen  have 
always  employed  more  help  than  they  actually  needed, 
just  because  it  was  handy  and  comparatively  cheap. 
There  is,  however,  no  valid  reason  why  this  differecne 
should  be  so  great,  and  the  opportunity  for  the  sheep- 
growers  of  the  Southwest  to  economize  in  this  respect 
is  obvious. 

In  Table  2  the  "maintenance  cost"  means  all  the 
various  items  of  feed  for  the  sheep,  the  bucks,  saddle, 
pack  and  work  animals  used,  and  all  grazing  fees  on 
National  Forests  or  other  leased  lands.  Arizona  stands 
lowest  in  this  respect  at  15  cents  per  sheep  per  annum, 
with  Idaho  the  highest  at  96  cents  per  head.  This  dif- 
ference is  due  mainly  to  the  winter  feeding  expenses  of 
the  Northwest  and  the  higher  rental  value  of  their  graz- 
ing lands. 

Colorado  is  lowest  in  the  average  shearing,  with  6.1 
pounds,  Washington  the  highest  with  an  average  shear- 
ing of  9.3  pounds.  The  column  headed  "net  charge 
against  wool"  is  what  it  costs  the  wool-grower  to  pro- 
duce a  pound  of  wool.  The  Washington  wool-grower 
with  his  heavy  mutton  sheep  and  high  average  shearing 
shows  almost  no  charge  'at  all  against  the  wool  by  the 
time  it  is  offered  for  sale.  This  "charge  against  the 
wool"  averages  11  cents  per  pound  for  the  range  states, 
in  the  Ohio  region  about  19  cents,  in  South  America  be- 
tween 4  and  5  cents  and  in  Australia  approximately 
nothing,  the  sales  of  mutton  practically  covering  every 
expense  of  the  flock,  leaving  the  wool  clear  of  all 
charges. 

From  these  tables  it  appears  that  the  average  annual 
cost  of  running  sheep  per  head  in  the  western  states  is 
approximately  $2.11,  while  in  the  Ohio  region  it  is  $2.78. 


COST  OF   RUNNING   STOCK   ON   RANGES  207 

The  most  reliable  authority  on  cost  of  sheep-raising  in 
England  places  the  total  annual  cost  there,  including 
labor,  at  $3.63  per  head.  It  is  still  higher  in  France  and 
Germany. 


CHAPTER  XL 

STOCK  ON  RANGES  IN  NATIONAL  FORESTS. 

With  approximately  160,000,000  acres  of  land  inside 
the  boundaries  of  the  various  National  Forests  at  the 
present  time,  the  control  of  grazing  matters  on  the  pub- 
lic lands  in  the  United  States  is  practically  in  the  hands 
of  the  Forest  Service.  The  importance  of  this  range  is 
increased  when  we  remember  that  probably  three- 
fourths  of  it  comprises  the  summer  ranges,  which  are 
of  vital  necessity  to  stockmen,  especially  sheepraisers. 
The  summer  range  is  today  the  key  to  the  whole  graz- 
ing situation  in  the  West. 

Timber  the  First  Consideration. — Inasmuch  as  the 
prime  consideration  in  establishing  the  National  Forests 
was  the  preservation  and  perpetuation  of  the  timber 
supply,  and  the  protection  of  important  watersheds,  it 
naturally  follows  that  all  pther  demands  for  the  use  of 
those  areas  may  be  considered  only  after  the  main  one 
of  forest  preservation.  The  control  of  grazing  on  the 
National  Forests  is  of  course  greatly  complicated  by  the 
questions  involved  in  protecting  the  timber  and  also 
the  watersheds  of  the  various  mountain  ranges  over 
which  the  National  Forests  extend;  and  it  becomes 
necessary  for  the  Government  in  handling  the  stock  on 
the  National  Forests  to  consider  it  as  rather  a  secondary 
matter,  in  which  the  questions  of  reproduction  and  pro- 
tection of  the  growing  timber  must  necessarily  come 

208 


STOCK   ON    RANGES    IN    NATIONAL   FORESTS  209 

first.  This  has  been  the  cause  of  much  criticism  and 
fault-finding  on  the  part  of  the  stockmen  who,  looking 
only  at  their  own  side  of  the  case,  were  unable  to  appre- 
ciate the  reasons  for  keeping  out  all  stock  from  certain 
areas  in  some  cases,  and  in  others  only  certain  classes  of 
stock. 

Therefore  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  where  stock- 
men are  refused  permission  to  take  their  herds  into  par- 
ticular portions  of  National  Forests  it  is  done  because 
the  grazing  of  stock  is  known  to  be  injurious  to  the 
forest  growth  and  would  defeat  the  object  for  which 
the  forests  was  created. 

It  has  always  been  hard  for  the  stockman  to  under- 
stand these  reasons,  and  doubtless  always  will  be,  be- 
cause of  man's  natural  inclination  to  judge  things  from 
a  selfish  standpoint.  Moreover,  the  average  stockman 
is  not  well  posted  on  the  various  questions  concerning 
the  reproduction  of  timber,  and  is  apt  to  scoff  at  the 
position  taken  by  trained  foresters  as  to  the  injurious 
effects  of  stock  grazing  over  areas  where  reforestation 
is  desirable. 

To  him  a  tree  is  an  object  100  feet  high  and  a  foot  or 
more  thick,  and  he  forgets  or  perhaps  may  not  know 
that  a  yellow  pine  seedling  two  years  old  is  often  not 
more  than  that  many  inches  high,  scarcely  showing  amid 
the  grass,  leaves  and  other  ground  cover  where  it  may 
be  snipped  off  by  his  sheep  or  trampled  into  a  shapeless 
wreck  by  some  heavy-footed  steer. 

There  are  few  of  the  National  Forests  which  today  are 
not  open  to  grazing  of  some  kind  of  stock  in  every  part, 
although  on  some  of  them  it  has  been  considered  advisa- 
ble to  close  certain  areas  to  grazing  of  all  kinds.  A 
prominent  case  of  this  kind  is  the  watershed  area  about 
the  sources  of  the  water  supply  of  several  western  cities, 


210  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

notably  Portland,  Ore.,  and  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  where 
it  was  considered  advisable  absolutely  to  forbid  the  use 
of  the  range  to  all  kinds  of  stock.  Again  on  the  Manti 
National  Forest  in  Utah  the  little  city  of  Manti,  before 
the  creation  of  the  forest,  had  been  repeatedly  damage-, 
by  heavy  floods  which  swept  down  the 'canyon  from  the 
mountains  above  them.  A  study  of  the  situation  by  the 
Manti  people  led  them  to  believe  that  the  seriously 
overgrazed  condition  of  the  mountains  about  the  head 
of  the  canyon  was  the  cause  of  these  floods.  The  grasses 
and  other  vegetation  were  all  gone  and  the  ground  was 
bare  and  packed  hard  by  the  constant  trampling  of  the 
stock.  Due  to  their  wishes,  the  Forest  Service  prohib- 
ited all  grazing  upon  an  area  of  considerable  extent,  and 
after  four  years'  experience  the  people  of  Manti  are 
unanimous  in  the  belief  that  the  effect  of  this  has  been 
practically  to  eliminate  the  floods. 

On  several  of  the  National  Forests  where  large  irri- 
gation works  are  being  erected  under  Government  super- 
vision, the  Reclamation  Service  has  seen  fit  to  prohibit 
the  grazing  of  sheep  about  the  heads  of  all  the  water 
courses  which  flow  into  the  reservoirs  being  built.  The 
best  example  of  this  exclusion  is  in  Arizona,  where  the 
Government  has  erected  at  a  cost  of  more  than 
$9,000,000  the  great  Roosevelt  Dam  with  a  reservoir 
capacity  sufficient  when  once  filled  to  irrigate  200,000 
acres  of  land  for  at  least  two  years  without  being  replen- 
ished. 

The  region  about  this  reservoir  is  one  of  the  best  win- 
ter sheep-grazing  areas  in  the  Southwest,  and  at  the 
time  the  Government  took  charge  of  the  irrigation 
project  probably  carried  during  at  least  four  months  of 
the  year  300,000  sheep,  besides  fully  100,000  cattle.  The 


STOCK   ON    RANGES    IN    NATIONAL    FORESTS  211 

result  was  that  the  entire  watershed  draining  into  the 
Roosevelt  Dam  was  seriously  overgrazed.  One  of  the 
first  studies  taken  up  by  the  engineers  was  the  question 
of  silt;  after  a  careful  survey  of  the  area  it  was  deemed 
advisable  to  protect  the  watershed  by  creating  a  Na- 
tional Forest  there,  and  absolutely  to  prohibit  all  sheep 
and  goats  grazing  upon  it. 

It  was  but  natural  that  the  sheepmen  should  find  con- 
siderable fault  with  this  ruling,  but  when  one  considers 
that  the  number  of  sheepmen  involved  was  probably 
not  more  than  200  as  against  fully  50,000  people  living 
under  the  Roosevelt  Dam  system,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
it  was  only  a  question  of  the  greatest  good  for  the 
greatest  number.  The  Forest  Service  on  publishing 
this  prohibition  of  sheep  gave  the  sheepmen  sufficient 
notice,  so  that  they  had  at  least  two  seasons  in  which 
to  prepare  for  the  change.  It  is  possible  that  in  the 
future  similar  areas  around  other  national  irrigation 
works  will  have  to  be  protected  from  overgrazing  where 
the  question  of  silt  coming  down  the  streams  and  filling 
up  the  reservoirs  is  a  vital  one. 

Liberal  Policy  Followed. — In  considering  the  various 
questions  of  handling  live  stock  on  the  National  Forests, 
the  men  charged  with  the  control  of  grazing  have  en- 
deavored to  meet  them  in  a  broad  and  liberal  spirit. 
While  full  consideration  must  be  given  to  the  questions 
of  reproduction  and  protection  to  the  forests,  it  has 
always  been  their  earnest  desire  to  give  the  stock  inter- 
ests every  possible  use  of  the  range.  The  small  stock- 
man and  home-builder  is  given  free  grazing  for  his  work 
and  milk  stock  up  to  ten  head,  while  the  hunter,  camper, 
miner  and  traveler  is  allowed  to  graze  his  stock  without 
charge  wherever  his  wanderings  take  him. 


212  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

In  studying  the  subject  much  has  been  learned  as  to 
the  possibilities  of  utilizing  the  ranges  in  the  National 
Forests  and  at  the  same  time  allow  for  the  growth  of 
the  timber.  The  question  is  a  broad  one,  and  must 
always  be  met  in  a  fair  spirit  by  the  grazing  men  on  one 
side  and  the  trained  foresters  on  the  other.  From  the 
studies  so  far  made  it  is  evident  that  on  those  ranges 
where  reproduction  is  desirable,  by  keeping  the  stock, 
especially  sheep,  off  certain  areas  for  periods  of  years 
the  young  timber  will  get  its  growth  to  a  point  where  it 
can  not  be  damaged  by  stock.  Such  areas  can  there- 
fore be  temporarily  closed,  and  once  the  young  timber 
is  past  the  danger-stage  can  be  again  opened  for  graz- 
ing. If  people  are  going  to  build  houses  they  must  first 
be  fed,  and  there  is  little  danger  that  the  areas  within 
the  National  Forests  will  be  handled  so  as  to  leave  the 
forage  on  a  single  acre  of  it  untouched  by  meat-pro- 
ducing animals,  unless  it  is  clearly  shown  that  such 
exclusion  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  that  the  value  of 
the  timber  produced  on  the  area  will  be  greater  than  its 
meat-jaising  capacity. 

Improving  the  Ranges. — Through  the  conservative 
and  practical  administration  of  grazing  affairs  on  the 
various  National  Forests,  the  carrying  capacity  of  many 
of  the  ranges  is  gradually  being  improved,  and  while  it 
is  true  that  on  some  of  the  forests  the  number  of  stock 
grazing  today  is  considerably  less  than  it  was  a  decade 
ago  it  is  also  true  and  much  more  to  the  point  that  the 
physical  condition  of  the  stock  now  grazing  there  is 
much  better,  and  there  is  a  greater  stability  to  the  busi- 
ness than  under  the  old  conditions. 

One  of  the  most  destructive  uses  of  the  mountain 
ranges  under  the  old  system  was  the  early  grazing  be- 


STOCK   ON    RANGES    IN    NATIONAL    FORESTS  213 

fore  the  ground  was  dried  out  sufficiently  in  the  spring 
and  the  young  grass  was  hardly  started.  It  was  simply 
a  race  to  see  who  would  get  into  the  mountains  first  and 
thus  obtain  possession  of  the  best  ranges.  The  result 
was  that  the  grass  on  thousands  of  acres  was  destroyed, 
when  if  the  stock  had  been  kept  off  for  a  short  time 
longer  the  feed  would  have  been  so  far  advanced  that  it 
could  not  be  injured. 

In  handling  stock  on  the  National  Forests  the  ranges 
are  divided  into  districts,  each  of  which  is  in  charge  of 
one  or  more  forest  rangers.  The  rangers  see  to  it  that 
the  stock  of  each  permittee  is  as  nearly  as  possible  kept 
upon  the  range  assigned  to  it,  and  that  each  respects 
the  rights  of  the  other.  Sheep  are  not  allowed  to  be 
bedded  down  more  than  six  successive  nights  in  any 
one  spot,  nor  near  the  banks  of  running  streams,  springs 
or  other  watering-places. 

Stock  driveways  are  established  wide  enough  to  admit 
of  reasonable  grazing  en  route,  over  which  stock  may  be 
driven  under  a  permit,  which  is  in  most  instances 
granted  without  charge.  The  exceptions  are  where  the 
trip  is  of  such  a  length  that  the  stock  is  upon  the  forest 
for  an  unusually  long  period  and  derives  more  or  less 
benefit  from  it.  By  this  means  the  stockmen  who  are 
not  permittees  are  given  opportunity  to  cross  back  and 
forth  to  reach  either  their  private  lands  or  ranges  upon 
the  Government  lands  surrounding  a  national  forest. 

Elimination  of  Tramp  Stockmen. — On  the  National 
Forests  the  tramp  stockman,  and  this  applies  equally  to 
both  sheep  and  cattle,  has  been  practically  eliminated. 
No  more  can  men  whose  sole  possession  is  a  herd  of 
sheep  and  a  few  pack  burros  sweep  over  the  country 
regardless  of  the  rights  of  others,  taking  the  cream  of 


214  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

the  range  wherever  they  find  it.  This  was  also  done 
by  cattlemen  who  purchased  herds  of  steers  in  the 
Southwest,  shipped  them  to  some  point,  unloaded  and 
turned  them  out  on  the  mountain  ranges,  although  well 
aware  of  the  fact  that  they  were  already  stocked  by 
resident  owners  to  almost  their  full  capacity.  Under 
such  conditions  the  ranges  were  ruined  and  the  local 
owners  and  settlers  practically  driven  from  the  range. 

Tramp  Sheepman  in  California. — In  California  in  the 
southern  Sierras  the  attempts  of  the  tramp  sheepmen  to 
dominate  the  range  resulted  in  such  an  intense  senti- 
ment against  them  that  the  Government  was  forced 
absolutely  to  prohibit  all  sheep  grazing  upon  areas 
which  had  hitherto  supported  an  immense  number  of 
sheep.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  large  number  of  sheep 
could  safely  be  grazed  today  on  those  ranges  without 
injury  either  to  the  watershed,  the  timber,  or  the  set- 
tlers. In  fact,  their  presence  in  keeping  down  the  chap- 
paral  growth,  especially  the  snow  bush  (which  since 
sheep  have  been  kept  out  has  spread  at  a  tremendous 
rate,  forming  dense,  almost  impossible  jungles),  is  a 
decided  benefit  to  the  ranges.  But  the  general  public  is 
so  strongly  against  it,  owing  to  the  drastic  lessons  of 
the  past,  that  the  mere  suggestion  of  such  action  would 
undoubtedly  arouse  a  very  determined  opposition  to  it. 

Changing  from  Cattle  to  Sheep. — The  question  of  men 
changing  from  one  class  of  stock  to  another  (as  cat- 
tlemen selling  their  cattle  and  replacing  them  with 
sheep)  is  one  which  can  not  always  be  allowed  on  the 
National  Forests.  One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  this  is 
the  protecting  of  the  watershed  and  the  timber.  An- 
other factor  is  public  sentiment.  Where  the  region  is 
one  which  has  always  been  used  for  a  cattle-raising 


STOCK   ON    RANGES    IN    NATIONAL    FORESTS  215 

range,  the  question  must  be  seriously  considered  before 
action  is  taken  upon  it.  If  the  silvicultural  projects  will 
not  be  injured  and  the  sheep  can  be  grazed  without  in- 
terference with  the  cattlemen  using  the  range,  it  may 
generally  be  looked  upon  favorably;  but  if  public  senti- 
ment is  opposed  to  it,  as  in  the  California  case  men- 
tioned, and  the  sheep  can  not  be  grazed  without  more 
or  less  interfering  with  the  stock  already  there,  it  should 
not  be  granted.  These  questions  must  naturally  be  con- 
sidered and  each  case  decided  upon  its  own  particular 
merits,  because  no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down  which 
will  apply  alike  to  all. 

Cattle  vs.  Sheep. — In  the  opinion  of  many  sheepmen 
the  Forest  Service  has  discriminated  against  their  in- 
dustry in  favor  of  the  cattle-raiser.  While  not  admit- 
ting discrimination  in  the  sense  meant  by  the  sheepmen, 
the  Service  holds  that  they  are  handling  forested  areas 
and  not  stock  ranges,  and  that  all  stock  grazing  being 
primarily  more  or  less  objectionable  from  the  point  of 
view  of  a  forester  they  are  justified  in  encouraging  the 
grazing  of  the  class  of  stock  which  in  their  judgment 
does  the  least  damage  to  the  forest  areas. 

Another  point  is  the  character  of  the  business.  From 
the  days  of  Abraham  the  sheepman  has  been  a  nomad 
and  the  cattle-raiser  a  tiller  of  the  soil.  The  Forest 
Service  believes,  and  rightly,  that  the  settler  who  takes 
up  a  little  piece  of  land  and  makes  a  home  for  himself 
and  family  is  entitled  to  first  consideration  in  the  use  of 
the  range  about  him.  Every  such  settler  has  as  part  and 
parcel  of  his  home-building  operations  a  few  horses  and 
cattle,  and  must  graze  them  near  his  habitation.  The 
sheepman,  on  the  contrary,  can  drive  his  herds  to  the 
feed,  and  wherever  night  overtakes  him  there  he  is  at 
home. 


216  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Besides,  from  the  nature  of  the  business,  more  peo- 
ple are  cattle-raisers  than  sheep-raisers.  A  settler  can 
start  out  with  a  milk  cow  and  a  work  team  and  hope  to 
see  them  increase  as  his  fortune  improves.  The  sheep- 
man cannot  make  such  humble  beginnings  but  must 
perforce  start  in  with  a  band  sufficiently  large  to  pay  for 
herding  and  handling  them. 

Every  settler  who  takes  up  a  piece  of  land  or  buys  a 
little  home  becomes  at  once  a  horse  and  cattle-raiser, 
but,  based  upon  the  data  available,  not  more  than  one 
in  every  twenty-five  is  a  sheep-raiser.  Therefore  the 
Forest  Service  believes  that  the  cause  of  forestry  will  be 
advanced  by  giving  the  cattle-raiser  the  preference  over 
the  sheep-raiser  whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  decide 
between  the  two.  This  cannot  be  called  discrimination ; 
it  is  rather  a  decision  as  to  which  of  two  good  things  is 
the  better  for  the  whole  people. 

The  Permit  System. — The  use  of  the  National  For- 
ests is  granted  the  stockmen  through  a  system  of  per- 
mits issued  generally  about  the  first  of  April  of  each 
year,  and  for  such  periods  of  time  as  experience  has 
shown  meet  the  conditions  on  the  various  forests. 

The  permit  issued  shcfws  the  number  of  stock  to  be 
grazed  by  the  person  holding  it,  and  specifies  the  range 
on  which  the  animals  are  to  be  grazed.  The  charges 
are  made  on  a  per  capita  in  preference  to  an  acreage 
basis.  The  per  capita  permit  is  more  flexible  and  the 
control  of  the  ranges  far  more  satisfactory  than  where 
an  acreage  charge  is  made  and  a  specific  area  leased  to 
the  permittee.  In  granting  these  permits  priority  in  the 
use  of  the  range  is  first  considered,  and  preference  given 
to  those  who  have  continuously  used  the  range  for  the 
longest  period.  In  order  that  there  may  be  no  monopoly 


STOCK   ON    RANGES    IN    NATIONAL   FORESTS  217 

of  the  range,  protective  and  maximum  limits  are  estab- 
lished. The  protective  limit  is  the  number  of  stock 
which  small  owners  will  be  allowed  to  graze  without 
reductions,  excepting  for  certain  specific  reasons;  while 
the  maximum  limit  is  the  greatest  number  which  any 
person  or  corporation  will  be  allowed  to  graze.  The 
protective  limit  is  generally  based  on  the  number  of 
stock  which  the  average  settler  can  care  for  in  connec- 
tion with  his  homestead  and  support  himself  and  family 
in  a  modest  way. 

New1  Settlers. — In  order  to  allow  the  use  of  a  portion 
of  the  range  on  fully  stocked  forests  by  new  settlers 
all  permits  above  the  protective  limit  are  scaled  down 
each  year  on  a  certain  well-defined  percentage,  which 
must  be  no  greater  than  will  result  in  a  total  reduction, 
equaling  3  per  cent  of  all  the  stock  allowed  to  graze 
upon  that  particular  forest  during  the  year.  Thus  if  the 
forest  is  carrying  100,000  sheep  the  gross  reduction  from 
the  larger  permittees  will  accumulate  surplus  range 
for  3,000  sheep  to  be  taken  up  by  new  applicants.  This 
makes  the  change  come  more  gradually  and  allows  time 
for  the  larger  owners  to  regulate  business. 

The  number  of  stock  thus  gained  is  given  to  the  new 
men,  who  must  in  every  case  be  bona  fide  settlers  and 
home-builders,  depending  on  their  lands  for  their  living. 
In  many  instances  the  number  of  new  applicants  is  far 
in  excess  of  the  capacity  of  the  range  to  care  for  them, 
and  in  such  event  the  needs  of  each  individual  applicant 
are  considered  and  those  who  in  the  judgment  of  the 
Forest  officers  are  most  dependent  on  the  range  are 
granted  the  permits.  Of  course  where  the  range  is  not 
fully  stocked  these  protective  and  maximum  limits  are 
not  always  strictly  enforced. 


218  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

The  Cash  Value  of  Permits. — Usually  the  advantages 
of  grazing  stock  on  the  National  Forests  are  so  apparent 
that  the  permit  has  come  to  have  a  great  pecuniary 
value,  resulting  in  a  premium  on  both  ranches  and  stock 
located  within  or  adjacent  to  National  Forest  ranges. 
Instances  are  known  where  sheep  grazing  under  permit 
on  a  Forest  have  been  sold  for  as  much  as  $2  per  head 
more  than  the  market  value,  solely  because  the  ranch 
which  went  with  the  purchase  controlled  the  range  in 
the  National  Forest  on  which  the  sheep  grazed. 

Permits  Nonsalable  and  Nontransferable. — Permits  to 
graze  stock  on  a  National  Forest  are  not  transferable. 
The  Government  recognizes  the  claims  of  the  pioneer 
settler,  who  was  occupying  the  ranges  when  the  forests 
were  established,  by  allowing  him  to  remain  in  posses- 
sion of  them  so  long  as  he  complies  with  the  regula- 
tions. But  it  cannot  for  very  obvious  reasons  permit 
him  to  designate  his  successor  either  by  sale  or  inheri- 
tance. To  do  so  would  result  in  range  monopoly,  and 
the  Government  would  lose  control  of  its  own  lands. 

A  purchaser  of  stock  grazing  on  a  National  Forest  may 
secure  a  permit  for  the  rest  of  the  season  during  which 
the  original  permit  ran,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the  next 
grazing  season  he  must  file  an  application,  and  take  his 
chances  of  being  granted  a  permit  based  entirely  on  his 
individual  merits  as  an  applicant  and  not  by  right  of 
purchase  from  the  former  permittee. 

If,  however,  the  transfer  includes  both  the  stock  and 
such  necessary  ranch  property  as  is  clearly  commen- 
surate with  the  number  of  stock  involved,  and  required 
for  its  proper  handling,  the  permit  may  be  renewed  to 
the  purchaser,  less  any  reductions  that  would  have 
been  made  on  the  original  permit  or  are  required  by  the 
regulations. 


STOCK    ON    RANGES    IN    NATIONAL    FORESTS  219 

The  object  of  these  regulations  is  to  prevent  specula- 
tion in  permits  and  the  handing  down  of  grazing  priv- 
ileges from  one  person  to  another  without  the  power  of 
the  Government  to  control  it. 

Permits  for  More  than  One  Year. — On  some  of  the 
forests  where  grazing  conditions  are  well  established, 
and  there  are  no  range  controversies,  applications  are 
received  for  a  period  of  more  than  one  year,  usually  five 
years.  While  this  permit  is  issued  annually,  the  holder 
is  given  assurance  that  except  for  certain  stated  reasons 
and  causes  he  may  continue  to  use  the  same  range  and 
graze  the  same  number  of  stock  and  the  annual  permit 
will  be  renewed  each  year  for  the  term  specified  in  the 
application.  This  gives  the  holder  of  such  a  permit  a 
certain  permanence  in  the  use  of  his  range  and  the  num- 
ber of  stock  to  be  grazed  under  it. 

Drifting  of  Stock  onto  Forests. — AVhere  the  stockmen, 
especially  cattle-owners,  are  grazing  their  herds  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  National  Forests,  and  the  drifting  cattle 
naturally  work  back  and  forth  across  the  open  boundary 
line,  the  matter  is  adjusted  under  an  "on  and  off"  per- 
mit, which  allows  for  a  certain  proportion  of  the  cattle 
being  on  the  forest  at  all  times.  This  obviates  the  neces- 
sity of  the  stockman  herding  his  cattle  or  erecting  fences 
to  keep  them  from  going  on  the  forest,  and  has  proved 
a  satisfactory  method  of  meeting  the  situation.  The 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  has  decided  that 
the  burden  of  keeping  the  drifting  stock  off  the  forests 
rests  on  the  owner  of  the  stock  and  not  the  Government, 
state  or  local  laws  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

Fencing  Privileges. — Stockmen     using    the     National 
Forests  are  also  permitted  to  fence  land  for  pasturing 


220  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

purposes,  a  privilege  which  cannot  be  granted  them  by 
any  one  on  public  land  outside  of  the  National  Forests. 
This  is  a  valuable  privilege,  because  of  the  necessity  for 
such  pastures  in  handling  the  stock.  Again,  the  Forest 
Service  allows  the  erection  of  drift  fences  where  such 
fences  are  clearly  a  benefit  to  the  forest,  and  by  this 
means  the  drifting  of  stock  from  its  proper  ranges  is 
stopped  and  the  expense  of  handling  the  animals  much 
less  than  where  it  was  necessary  to  ride  for  miles  to  find 
cattle  that  had  drifted  from  their  owner's  range. 

The  allotting  of  the  same  ranges  to  stockmen  through 
successive  years  also  tends  greatly  to  increase  their  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  preservation  of  the  range,  because 
they  know  that  if  they  leave  their  range  in  good  condi- 
tion in  the  fall  no  one  else  is  going  to  rush  in  there  after 
they  have  left  it  and  graze  it  to  the  bone  before  the  snow 
drives  them  out.  Therefore  under  this  system  the  desire 
to  overgraze  an  area  is  not  so  great,  and  thus  the  car- 
rying capacity  of  the  ranges  is  continually  being  im- 
proved. 

Fees  Moderate. — It  is  a  well-established  fact  that  the 
fees  charged  for  grazing  on  the  various  National  For- 
ests are  on  an  average  not  more  than  one-third  those 
charged  for  grazing  on  private  lands  of  equal  value. 
When  the  National  Forests  were  established  it  was  not 
the  intention  to  charge  such  an  amount  for  the  grazing 
privilege  as  to  result  in  a  profit  to  the  Government  or 
place  it  on  a  commercial  basis,  but  only  to  ask  the  stock- 
man to  pay  a  just  proportion  of  the  administrative  ex- 
pense in  handling  the  National  Forests. 

There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  if  the  Government 
adopted  the  plan  followed  on  the  various  Indian  reserva- 
tions, which  are  practically  private  lands  and  being 


STOCK    ON    RANGES    IN    NATIONAL    FORESTS  221 

administered  as  such,  and  put  the  privilege  up  under 
competitive  bids,  the  amount  received  would  be  greatly 
in  excess  of  what  is  now  paid. 

Possibility  of  Competitive  Bids. — Between  two  stock- 
men, one  grazing  his  herds  on  the  open  public  ranges 
and  taking  his  chances  in  obtaining  its  use  for  his  stock 
as  against  his  neighbor,  and  one  grazing  his  stock  on 
the  National  Forests  where  he  is  secure  in  the  posses- 
sion of  his  range,  the  latter  has  by  far  the  better  of  it 
and  should  under  all  commercial  principles  pay  a  much 
larger  sum  for  the  use  of  the  range  in  order  to  equalize 
matters. 

It  is  possible  that  eventually,  due  to  the  strong  de- 
mand for  range,  the  Forest  Service  will  be  forced  in 
self-protection  to  meet  this  question  by  some  system 
of  competitive  bids  where  after  taking  care  of  the  small 
settlers  for  a  certain  definite  number  of  their  stock  at  a 
fixed  per  capita  charge  the  rest  of  the  range  will  be 
given  to  those  who  bid  the  most  for  it.  Such  a  system 
will  possibly  result  in  more  or  less  range  monopoly  and 
in  some  cases  may  crowd  out  the  intermediate  man,  who 
is  neither  entitled  to  recognition  as  a  small  owner  nor 
able  to  command  the  capital  to  compete  with  the  larger 
owners. 

Result  of  Competitive  Bids. — That  this  may  happen 
has  been  indicated  by  the  success  of  the  Indian  office 
in  selling  the  grazing  privileges  on  the  various  Indian 
reservations  in  the  West. 

Prices  from  two  to  four  times  those  charged  by  the 
Forest  Service  have  been  received  for  these  lands  on 
which  the  grazing  is  practically  the  same. 

The  White  Mountain  Indians  in  Arizona  receive    30 


222  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

cents  per  head  for  sheep  and  $1.40  per  head  for  cattle 
for  year-long  grazing  on  their  reservation,  while  on 
the  adjoining  Apache  and  Sitgreaves  National  Forests 
the  Forest  Service  is  charging  but  12  cents  per  head  for 
sheep  and  40  cents  for  cattle  for  the  same  time.  Yet 
the  two  areas  are  practically  the  same  from  a  grazing 
point  of  view. 

On  the  Crow  Creek  Reservation  in  Montana  the  high- 
est bidder  for  the  grazing  pays  35  cents  per  head  for 
sheep  and  $2.17  for  cattle  by  the  year,  while  on  the  Big 
Horn  National  Forest  immediately  alongside  of  it  with 
precisely  the  same  sort  of  range  the  Forest  Service 
charges  15  cents  per  annum  for  sheep  and  45  cents  for 
cattle. 

A  withdrawal  of  some  150,000  acres  of  grazing  land  in 
the  Uinta  National  Forest  in  Utah  for  reclamation  pur- 
poses in  the  Strawberry  Valley  placed  the  area  under 
tile  charge  of  the  Reclamation  Service. 

While  under  the  supervision  of  the  Forest  Service  the 
charge  for  grazing  this  land  was  only  10  cents  per  head, 
the  Reclamation  Service  had  little  trouble  in  leasing 
the  area  at  a  rate  that  brings  them  in  a  rental  of  42 
cents  for  each  sheep  grazed  upon  it. 

The  state  of  Utah  owns  large  bodies  of  lands  within 
several  of  the  National  Forests  in  the  state.  An  agree- 
ment was  entered  into  between  the  state  land  board  and 
the  Government  by  which  the  Forest  Service  undertook 
to  handle  this  land  and  turn  over  to  the  state  the  net 
receipts  after  deducting  the  cost  of  caring  for  it. 

After  two  years  the  state  revoked,  the  agreement, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  was  offered  much  better  prices 
by  individuals  for  its  use  than  the  fees  received  from  the 
Forest  Service  amounted  to.  The  state  had  no  trouble 


STOCK    ON    RANGES    IN    NATIONAL    FORESTS  223 

at  all  in  leasing  it  out  to  large  stockmen  at  greatly  in- 
creased rates. 

The  same  happened  in  South  Dakota  where  the  state 
land  board  had  precisely  the  same  agreement.  In  Col- 
orado and  New  Mexico  the  state  lands  are  leased  in 
large  blocks  at  a  minimum  rate  of  4  cents  per  acre,  while 
just  as  good  land  in  the  forests  around  the  state  land  is 
grazed  by  stockmen  at  a  price  which  is  less  than  1  cent 
per  acre. 

Exchanging  Lands. — In  co-operating  with  the  owners 
of  land  within  the  boundaries  of  the  National  Forests 
such  as  the  railroad  grants  and  other  private  holdings, 
the  Forest  Service  has  adopted  a  very  liberal  policy  by 
which  means  the  lessees  or  owners  of  these  lands  are 
enabled  to  exchange  with  the  Government  for  an  equal 
acreage  all  in  one  body.  For  instance,  the  railroad  sec- 
tions which  are  alternate  sections  could  not  possibly  be 
grazed  except  with  great  danger  of  trespassing  on  the 
adjoining  Government  sections.  Therefore  a  man  who 
leases  ten  sections  of  railroad  land  lying  between  as 
many  sections  of  Government  land  is  given  in  exchange 
ten  sections  of  grazing  land  in  a  solid  body,  in  return 
for  which  he  allows  his  leased  lands  to  remain  open  to 
other  stock  grazing  under  permit.  In  this  way  the  lessee 
or  owner  of  private  lands  is  enabled  to  get  the  full  bene- 
fit of  his  holdings  and  have  it  in  one  solid  body  where 
he  is  far  better  able  to  handle  his  stock  and  utilize'the 
feed  than  he  would  be  on  his  scattered  sections.  Much 
the  same  privilege  is  allowed  persons  who  desire  to 
fence  up  areas  for  pastures.  By  means  of  an  exchange 
of  this  sort  the  owner  or  lessee  of  the  land  is  given  the 
right  to  enclose  an  equal  amount  of  Government  land 
up  to  a  maximum  of  320  acres,  leaving  his  own  land 
open  in  return. 


224  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Stock  Losses  Less. — It  has  been  proved  beyond  any 
question  that  on  the  National  Forests  with  a  constant 
supervision  on  the  part  of  the  rangers  and  other  forest 
officers,  the  loss  from  straying  and  stealing  of  stock  is 
much  less  than  on  the  open  ranges.  The  losses  from 
predatory  animals  have  also  been  greatly  reduced  on 
the  National  Forests  where  hunters  are  especially  em- 
ployed to  kill  them,  and  the  various  forest  officers  are 
also  encouraged  to  capture  and  destroy  such  animals 
whenever  opportunity  offers. 

Policy  of  Government  Growing  in  Favor. — When  the 
National  Forests  were  first  formed,  and  the  Government 
began  to  make  a  charge  for  grazing  stock  on  them,  the 
stockmen  who  had  hitherto  used  the  ranges  without 
restriction  of  any  kind  found  great  fault  with  the  sys- 
tem. For  several  years  there  was  in  many  parts  of  the 
West  a  strong  opposition  to  the  plan.  Today,  how- 
ever, there  is  no  doubt  that  if  it  were  left  to  a  vote  of 
the  stockmen  whether  to  abolish  the  National  Forests 
and  allow  grazing  under  the  old  conditions  or  continue 
under  the  present  plan,  90  per  cent  would  be  in  favor  of 
its  continuance. 

During  1912  nearly  7,500,000  sheep  and  goats  and 
1,500,000  cattle  and  horses  grazed  under  permit  on  the 
various  National  Forests.  The  number  of  permits  ex- 
ceeded 26,500,  of  which  21,188  were  for  cattle  and 
horses  and  5,313  for  sheep  and  goats. 

In  estimating  the  number  of  sheep  actually  grazed  the 
total  is  undoubtedly  almost  twice  that  shown  by  the 
permit  numbers.  This  is  because  of  the  policy  of  the 
Forest  Service  in  not  making  charge  for  animals  under 
six  months  of  age.  The  sheepmen  almost  universally 
avail  themselves  of  this  advantage  by  taking  into  the 


STOCK    ON    RANGES    IN    NATIONAL    FORESTS  225 

forests  only  ewes  either  with  lambs  or  to  lamb  after 
entering.  Thus  while  an  owner  may  have  a  permit  for 
1,500  ewes  he  may  really  take  into  the  forest  and  graze 
about  2,500  or  2,600  sheep,  young  and  old. 

For  lambing  a  slight  fee  is  charged,  commonly  2  cents 
per  ewe,  and  so  as  far  as  possible  the  lambing  grounds 
are  protected  from  other  grazing,  so  that  they  may  be  in 
the  best  possible  condition  at  this  time. 

When  one  stops  to  consider  the  conditions  under 
which  these  animals  were  grazed,  the  various  and  con- 
flicting demands  on  the  Service  for  recognition  either 
for  more  stock  or  more  range,  and  the  necessity  for  con- 
trolling men  who  had  in  the  past  been  practically  mas- 
ters of  the  range  by  virtue  of  their  might,  it  is  surpris- 
ing to  find  how  few  cases  of  error  there  have  been  on 
the  part  of  the  forest  officers  concerned.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  as  the  stockmen  become  better  acquainted 
with  the  regulations  and  the  forest  officers  more  con- 
versant with  the  needs  of  the  stockmen  and  the  ranges, 
these  complaints  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE. 

When  the  first  settlers  and  stockmen  came  into  the 
West,  they  found  an  almost  virgin  country  for  their 
stock.  As  far  as  the  eye  could  reach  stretched  billowy 
prairies  covered  with  grasses,  the  accumulation  of  ages. 
This  carpet  of  grass  made  a  reservoir  whereon  every 
drop  of  water  and  flake  of  snow  that  fell  were  received 
and  saved  for  future  use. 

There  were  no  roads  or  trails  cutting  and  gashing 
the  country  to  offer  a  ready  runway  for  the  moisture. 
The  spring  snows  lay  long  under  the  folds  of  the  old 
grass,  weeds  or  brush  that  covered  the  ground.  Let  the 
wind  blow  as  it  pleased,  it  could  not  blow  the  snow 
entirely  off  the  ground.  A  certain  amount  of  it  was 
allowed  to  remain  to  melt  and  soak  into  the  ground, 
thus  bringing  the  green  sprouts  out  early  in  the  spring, 
and  it  took  a  long  dry  spell  to  make  any  great  impres- 
sion on  the  soil. 

When  the  settler's  stock  began  to  spread  out  and, 
here  and  there,  a  fire  was  started  under  the  mistaken 
impression  that  it  benefited  the  grass,  this  covering  dis- 
appeared, and  when  winter  came  there  was  nothing  left 
on  the  ground  to  cover  it  up  and  offer  a  safe  resting 
place  for  the  snow  and  rain. 

Burning  Off  a  Range. — The  burning  off  of  a  range  in 
the  fall  or  winter  in  order  "to  make  better  feed  next 

226 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE  227 

spring"  is  one  of  the  greatest  mistakes  the  western  man 
ever  made.  There  is  no  doubt  that  he  obtained  the  idea 
from  the  Indians,  who  seem  to  have  practiced  it  more 
or  less.  Theoretically  it  appears  to  be  a  good  thing. 

Take  a  great  sweep  of  open  prairiee,  covered  with 
considerable  old,  dry  grass. .  Burn  a  strip  across  it  and 
in  the  early  spring  when  the  grass  begins  to  green  it 
will  show  up  to  a  decided  advantage  against  the  yellow 
of  the  unburned  area.  The  advocate  of  burning  will 
point  to  it  as  a  positive  and  unimpeachable  result.  "Look 
at  the  burned  strip  and  then  at  the  unburned  place  and 
it  speaks  for  itself,"  he  declares.  So  it  does  if  one 
doesn't  give  the  matter  any  more  than  a  superficial 
thought,  as  too  many  of  us  do. 

True  it  is  that  on  the  burned  strip  the  green  grass  is 
easily  seen.  But  get  down  on  your  knees  and  peer  into 
the  old  grass  on  the  unburned  strip,  and  you  will  find 
as  much  young  grass  starting  up  under  its  cover,  giving 
it  a  protection  against  the  frosts  and  drying  winds  that 
the  grass  on  the  burned  strip  lacks. 

Comes  a  cold  night  or  windy  weather  and  the  grass 
on  the  burned  strip  curls  up  and  either  dies  or  is  set 
back  in  its  growth  very  materially;  while  the  other  part 
under  the  cover  and  protection  of  the  old  grass,  which 
also  holds  every  drop  of  moisture  that  falls  on  it,  is  safe 
and  sheltered  and  does  not  feel  the  change  in  condi- 
tions. 

The  man  who  burns  off  a  range  to  get  better  grass 
does  himself  and  the  range  the  greatest  possible  injury, 
and  if  he  persists  in  it  will  eventually  kill  out  the  best 
of  the  grasses,  which  will  not  stand  the  repeated  attacks 
by  fire  and  only  the  worthless  and  useless  weeds  and 
plants  will  persist. 


228  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Range  Erosion. — The  trails  that  the  cattle  made  lead- 
ing into  the  watering-places  or  the  sheep  dragging 
along  one  after  another,  on  the  ranges,  furnished  con- 
venient passages  for  the  water  to  follow.  Little  trails 
where  the  stock  had  worn  out  the  grass  to  the  bare 
ground  soon  became  deeper..  The  erosion  left  the  bot- 
tom full  of  small  pebbles  which  hurt  the  feet  of  the 
stock.  They  started  a  new  trail  just  alongside  the  old 


"Down  These  Trails  the  Water  Finally  Tore." 

one  and  thus  the  process  was  repeated  until  one  can 
see  on  many  western  ranges  a  score  of  such  trails  side 
by  side,  stretching  for  miles  across  the  prairie  towards 
watering-places. 

Down  these  trails  the  water  first  crept,  then  ran  and 
finally  tore,  digging  down  deep  into  the  ground  until 
great  washes  were  formed.  Little  trails  leading  into 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE  229 

these  larger  ones  furnished  fine  feeders  for  them,  and 
thus  by  a  series  of  natural  but  unfortunate  conditions  a 
system  of  drainage  was  put  into  effect  that  was  suf- 
ficient to  drain  off  almost  every  drop  of  water  that  fell 
on  the  surface.  Instead  of  soaking  into  the  soil  it  ran 


Old   Stock   Trails   Washed    Out,    Forming   Arroyos   in    Meadow    Land. 

off  just  as  rapidly  as  it  could,  taking  with  it  the  valua- 
ble topsoil  and  cutting  deeper  and  deeper  those  washes 
or  arroyos  which  today  have  seamed  and  scarred  the 
western  ranges  in  every  direction. 

Follow  down  the  main  Santa  Fe  road  in  northern 
New  Mexico  and  one  can  see  from  the  train  and  close 
to  the  track  the  signs  of  these  trails  for  many  miles, 


230  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

some  of  them  fifty  trails  wide.  The  damage  done  by 
trails  cannot  be  stopped.  Once  they  begin  to  cut  and 
form  a  little  "pour-over"  in  their  path,  the  matter  seems 
to  be  beyond  control,  excepting  at  tremendous  cost  of 
labor  and  material. 

It  seems  almost  impossible  to  stop  the  erosive  action 
of  the  waters.  I  have  been  seen  lovely  mountain 
meadows  drained  and  ruined  by  such  an  arroyo  which 
cut  across  them,  beginning  at  the  lower  end  with  a  little 
pour-off  or  waterfall,  and  working  back  year  after  year, 
with  increasing  rapidity  in  spite  of  everything  that  could 
be  done  to  stop  it. 

In  one  instance  from  a  little  cow  trail  in  the  grass 
an  arroyo  was  cut  which  in  ten  years  was  almost  a 
mile  long,  fifty  feet  wide  and  fifteen  feet  deep  and  a 
meadow,  full  of  marshy  places  and  renowned  all  over 
the  region  for  its  hay-producing  value,  was  drained  as 
dry  as  a  dusty  road. 

Ever  since  the  first  settlement  of  the  western  ranges 
this  work  of  erosion  has  been  going  on.  Like  the  cattle 
trails,  the  wagon  roads  offered  equal  facilities  to  the 
run-off  of  the  water.  The  old  Santa  Fe  trail  can  today 
be  followed  for  miles  by  the  wide  and  almost  barren 
streak  which  it  occupies  on  the  prairies. 

The  first  wagons  broke  the  road  which,  after  being 
used  for  a  time,  begun  to  show  holes  and  ruts.  Then  a 
new  one  would  be  made  just  off  the  first  which  in  turn 
would  succumb  to  the  wet  weather  and  ruts,  and  thus 
in  time  the  road  would  spread  out  over  a  wide  area. 

Wherever  the  road  led  down  a  slope  the  water  soon 
found  a  handy  outlet  in  the  wheel  tracks  and  the  rest 
was  only  a  matter  of  time.  The  ruts  were  worn 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE 


231 


down  deeper  and  deeper  until  the  road  became  unfit  for 
use,  owing  to  the  high  centers. 

Thus  the  water  that  formerly  flowed  slowly  across 
the  grassy  prairies  was  drawn  off  as  rapidly  as  in  the 
paved  streets  of  a  city,  and  was  lost  to  the  vegetation 


An   Arizona   Range   After   a   Hard   Spring. 

which  so  badly  needed  it.  This  was  one  of  the  reasons 
for  the  failure  of  the  western  ranges. 

Overstocking. — The  greed  of  the  settlers  and  the 
utter  lack  of  responsibility  for  preserving  the  ranges  for 
future  use  were  other  reasons  for  range  failure  and 
depreciation.  It  was  all  free,  open  grazing;  Uncle  Sam 
owned  it  and  "if  we  did  not  get  it  somebody  else  would." 
This  was  the  general  feeling. 

Tens  of  thousands  of  cattle  and  sheep  were  thrown 
onto  ranges  only  to  starve  and  die.  On  an  average  little 


232  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

of  the  range  country -west  of  the  Missouri  was  capable 
in  its  best  days  of  supporting  more  than  one  cow  to 
every  twenty-five  acres  and  keep  it  up  year  after  year. 
Today,  taking  the  whole  western  range  country,  in- 
cluding the  areas  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  which 
are  principally  desert,  it  is  doubtful  whether  on  an  aver- 
age it  will  support  more  than  one  cow  to  every  seventy- 
five  acres. 

The  splendid  forage  grasses  that  covered  all  this 
western  range  were  eaten  off  and  the  roots  uncovered  by 
the  winds  which  blew  all  the  soil  from  them.  The  earth 
too  was  trampled  and  packed  hard  as  a  floor  by  the 
feet  of  the  stock  wandering  back  and  forth  across  it. 
Robbed  of  the  required  amount  of  moisture  through  the 
drainage  operations  of  these  various  trails  and  roads 
and  the  hard  impervious  surface  of  the  ground,  the 
native  grasses  have  a  hard  struggle  to  make  headway 
towards  revegetating  the  overgrazed  areas. 

Besides  this  the  stockmen  were  slow  to  realize  that 
the  range  could  no  longer  support  the  same  number  of 
stock,  and  until  Providence  stepped  in  and  by  a  series 
of  hard  winters  swept  the  surplus  stock  from  the 
ranges,  little  was  done  to 'reduce  the  number.  Bitter  as 
has  been  the  lesson  the  stockmen  still  will  not  see  the 
necessity  for  more  conservative  handling  of  the  ranges, 
or,  seeing  it,  will  not  accept  the  only  possible  way  in 
which  it  can  be  brought  about,  which  is,  government 
control. 

Time  after  time  has  the  matter  been  brought  to  their 
attention  through  conventions  and  meetings,  but  so  far 
there  is  a  fatal  lack  of  harmony  among  these  men  who 
are  the  most  vitally  interested.  The  opposition  comes 
mainly  from  the  sheepmen,  who,  while  fully  realizing 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE  233 

the  conditions,  yet  "fear  to  fly  from  ills  that  are  to  evils 
that  they  know  not  of." 

Generally  speaking,  the  cattlemen  of  the  entire  west- 
ern region  are  heartily  in  favor  of  the 'plan.  They  have 
long  realized  the  absolute  necessity  for  the  protection 
afforded  the  range-users  through  a *  liberal  policy  of 
Government  control  of  the  range.  Their  business  does 
not  demand  a  great  expanse  of  range,  as  does  that  of 
the  sheepmen;  hence  they  can  accept  the  promises  of 
the  Government  experts  that  the  matter  can  be  so 
handled  as  to  give  every  man  his  fair  share  of  the  range 
and  not  interfere  'with  personal  rights  gained  through 
long  use  of  the  range. 

Success  in  Handling  the  Range. — The  success  of  the 
Forest  Service  in  handling  the  range  is  pointed  to  as 
an  example  of  what  may  be  done  in  the  matter.  The 
larger  sheepmen,  smarting  from  what  they  term  the  in- 
terference of  the  Forest  Service  with  their  business,  in 
cutting  down  their  herds  to  make  room  for  the  small 
settlers  denounce  the  plan,  and  declare  that  while  things 
are  bad  enough  as  they  are,  under  Government  control 
they  would  be  worse. 

There  is  little  real  foundation  for  this  feeling  except- 
ing that  Government  control  would  put  an  end  to  the 
hogging  of  the  ranges  by  any  men,  no  matter  what 
their  business.  Today  the  man  with  the  great  herds 
has  the  matter  almost  entirely  in  his  own  hands.  He 
can  allow  the  little  fellow  to  live  and  obtain  his  part 
of  the  range,  or  he  can  snuff  him  out  in  one  season.  To 
the  credit  of  the  stockmen  of  all  classes,  this  is  not  com- 
monly the  case  today,  although  it  was,  not  many  years 
ago.  Generally  speaking,  the  old  plan  of  riding  rough- 
shod over  the  little  herds  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  Never- 


234  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

theless,  the  little  men  well  know  that  they  have  but 
small  show  to  run  their  herds  so  long  as  the  heavy  out- 
fits are  in  possession  of  the  range. 

If  the  small  man  has  a  little  patch  of  grass  saved  up 
for  his  winter  feed,  some  wandering  band  of  sheep  or 
the  cattle  belonging  to  some  great  company  comes 
along  and  grazes  it  off,  leaving  his  few  head  to  winter 
without  any  grass.  For  this  reason  there  are  few- 
small  owners  today  who  use  the  open  ranges  ex- 
clusively. They  found  out  to  their  entire  satisfaction 
back  in  the  '80s  that  there  was  no  use  in  a  little  man 
trying  to  hold  his  own  on  the  open  range.  Proof  of 
this  fact  is  easily  found  by  a  study  of  the  number  of 
sheep  and  cattle  being  grazed  on  the  various  National 
Forests.  Here  the  small  men  are  greatly  in  the  ma- 
jority. 

In  the  beginning  the  larger  men  were  almost  the  sole 
occupants  of  the  ranges  in  the  forests.  Under  the  pro- 
tection afforded  by  the  Forest  Service  system  in  hand- 
ling the  ranges,  by  means  of  which  each  man  was  given 
a  range  and  guaranteed  exclusive  and  safe  possession 
of  it,  the  little  fellows  have  come  to  the  front  very 
rapidly.  On  a  Wyoming  'forest  in  the  first  year  it  was 
created  one  man  with  60,000  sheep  owned  65  per  cent  of 
the  sheep  on  the  forest.  Five  years  later  through  re- 
ductions made  in  his  herd  in  order  to  take  care  of  little 
men  he  was  running  but  15,000,  or  about  7  per  cent  of 
the  total.  Meantime,  from  a  dozen  men  using  the  range 
the  number  has  grown  to  eighty.  Is  there  any  sane  man 
who,  knowing  the  conditions,  believes  that  these  eighty 
men  would  be  there  today,  except  for  the  Federal  con- 
trol of  the  ranges?  Can  it  be  conceived  that  the  great 
herds  would  have  been  voluntarily  reduced  to  meet  the 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE  235 

requirements  of  new  settlers  asking  for  a  place  on 
which  to  graze  their  stock? 

Nor  is  the  sheep-owner  the  only  sinner  in  this  re- 
spect. True,  he  is  one,  but  the  cattlemen  have  also 
done  considerable  work  along  this  line  of  discouraging 
the  small  settlers.  Great  herds  of  young  steers  have 
been  purchased  in  the  southern  districts,  shipped  to  the 
northern  ranges  and  turned  loose  in  a  district  already 
stocked  with  the  mixed  cattle  of  the  settlers.  No  efforts 
were  made  to  hold  them  on  any  particular  range,  but 
they  were  allowed  to  wander  at  will,  the  owners  de- 
pending on  their  round-ups  to  find  them  in  the  fall.  Not 
only  was  the  range  eaten  off  by  these  nomadic  cattle, 
but,  what  was  equally  injurious  to  the  settlers,  the  pres- 
ence of  the  steers  prevented  the  cows  from  raising  any- 
thing like  a  fair  percentage  of  calves,  and  thus  the  local 
men  suffered  a  double  loss. 

Unfortunately  for  the  plans  of  this  class  of  men,  the 
manner  in  which  the  National  Forests  are  being  handled 
has  put  the  most  of  them  out  of  business.  They  de- 
pended upon  the  mountain  ranges  for  their  summer  feed 
and  as  they  can  obtain  only  their  fair  share  of  that  the 
rest  of  the  range  is  of  little  value  to  them. 

Restoring  Former  Range  Conditions. — There  is  little 
doubt  that  under  proper  care  the  ranges  may  be  re- 
stored to  their  old  values,  and  the  restoration  need  not 
be  an  expensive  or  a  difficult  operation.  All  that  Nature 
asks  is  time  to  heal  up  and  cover  over  the  scars  left  by 
man's  misuse  of  her  bounty. 

Given  any  over-grazed  range,  no  matter  how  badly  it 
has  been  abused  and  either  keep  the  stock  off  it  for  a 
term  of  years,  or  reduce  the  number  to  a  point  where 


236  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

the  grass  will  not  be  eaten  off  each  growing  and  seeding 
season  and  Nature  will  take  care  of  the  rest,  and,  ex- 
cepting in  rare  cases,  the  old  grasses  and  forage  plants 
will  return. 

Ride  along  any  western  railroad  whose  right-of-way 
is  fenced  and  note  the  difference  between  the  range 
inside  the  fence  and  that  outside.  Naturally  there  are 
certain  regions  where  foreign  weeds  and  plants  have 
to  a  great  extent  taken  the  place  of  the  original  grasses. 
It  has  been  demonstrated,  however,  that  the  old  grasses 
are  their  equal  in  a  fight  for  their  rights,  if  given  a 
chance.  The  trouble  heretofore  has  been  that  the  grasses 
were  eagerly  eaten  by  the  stock,  while  the  weeds  were 
left  alone. 

There  is  no  doubt  another  reason  :  that  the  old 
grasses  under  such  heavy  attacks  have  lost  some  of 
their  old  strength  and  powers  of  reproduction,  and  that 
they  are  not  so  aggressive  as  of  old.  Careful  observa- 
tion has  established  beyond  doubt  that  with  nearly  all 
grasses  the  continued  close-cropping  of  the  plants  tends 
greatly  to  reduce  the  vitality  and  germinative  power 
of  the  seeds. 

In  the  southwest  and  on  some  of  the  ranges  in  the 
northern  regions  there  is  a  little  green  weed  (Guttier- 
rezia)  known  locally  as  snakeweed,  fireweed,  turpentine 
weed,  and  possibly  by  other  names.  It  has  taken  large 
areas  of  range  that  were  once  the  pride  of  the  country. 
It  is  something  that  no  animal  is  known  to  eat,  even 
under  the  most  pressing  conditions.  It  generally  grows 
to  a  height  of  ten  inches,  and  is  a  bushy  plant  with 
small  yellow  flowers.  At  times  the  prairies  will  be  yel- 
low with  the  blossoms  and  always,  at  a  distance,  it 
looks  green  and  beautiful. 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE 


237 


There  is  a  great  area  of  this  weed  in  eastern  Colorado. 
From  La  Junta  west  along  the  Santa  Fe  road  one  can 
see  from  the  car  windows  great  sweeps  of  lovely  green 
prairies  which  delight  the  eye.  On  closer  examination 
the  green  is  the  green  of  snakeweed,  and  on  acres  and 
acres  the  grama  and  buffalo  grass  that  once  covered 
the  whole  country  are  gone,  with  the  exception  of  an 
occasional  struggling  bunch.  In  winter  this  weed  dries 


A   Range  of   "Snake"   or   "Fire"   Weed  Which  Is  Sometimes  Mistaken  for  Feed. 

and  the  flowers  bear  little  white  seeds  that  seem  to  be 
filled  with  a  resinous  substance  which  makes  it  burn 
like  tinder.  Hence  the  name  fire  or  turpentine  weed. 

Botanists  tell  us  that  Guttierrezia  is  a  native  of  the 
plains  region,  and  only  became  numerous  because  Na- 
ture, finding  the  other  cover  all  eaten  off,  this  weed 
naturally  took  its  place.  Given  any  fair  show,  the 
grasses  will  eventually  crowd  it  out. 


238  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

That  the  entire  western  range  has  been  seriously 
damaged  by  over-grazing  goes  without  saying.  The 
only  way  in  which  it  can  ever  be  restored  to  anything 
like  its  old  time  condition  and  value  is  through  some 
system  of  range  control  by  a  power  stronger  than  any 
local  management.  It  can  only  be  done  by  the  Federal 
Government,  which  is  free  from  entanglements  with 
local  users  and  local  prejudices.  That  it  will  be  done 
some  day  is  as  sure  as  that  the  run  rises  in  the  east. 

One  of  the  most  efficient  methods  for  range  improve- 
ment, that  of  a  "rotation  in  use"  of  the  ranges,  can 
only  be  utilized  through  Government  control  of  the 
lands.  This  rotation  system  when  applied  withdraws 
but  one-fifth  of  each  range  from  grazing  use  each  year. 
This  gives  the  grasses  a  chance  to  reseed  the  land  and 
in  a  short  time  the  productive  capacity  of  the  land  is  so 
increased  that  the  one-fifth  not  used  is  more  than  made 
up  by  the  improvement  on  the  other  areas. 

In  five  years  the  range  shows  remarkable  improve- 
ment and  with  conservative  use  will  hold  its  value  as  a 
stock  range. 

To  allow  such  a  valuable  resource  to  continue  to  be 
abused  when  it  can  easily  be  placed  on  its  old  footing 
again  is  not  consistent  with  American  methods.  It  is, 
however,  the  stockmen's  problem  and  they  must  solve 
it. 

Reseeding  a  Range. — While  the  ranges  will  recover 
most  of  their  old  form  and  value  if  given  a  rest,  there 
are  many  pastures  and  enclosed  areas  where  it  is  pos- 
sible through  artificial  means  to  secure  not  only  a  better 
growth  but  in  some  instances  a  better  forage  plant  than 
was  originally  found  on  the  ground. 

A   great   deal   of   experimental   work   has   been   done 


s 


Red  Top    (Agrostis  alba). 


Hungarian  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  inermis). 


242  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

along  these  lines  by  the  Federal  Government,  and  out 
of  the  mass  of  data  a  few  solid  facts  have  been  devel- 
oped upon  which  future  operations  may  be  based.  Out 
of  a  large  number  of  grasses  which  have  been  tried  on 
the  western  ranges  but  few  have  been  found  worthy  of 
general  use.  For  mountain  meadows  and  high  ranges 
where  the  moisture  is  sufficient  timothy  (Phleum 
pratense)  and  redtop  (Agrostis  alba)  have  done  well. 

For  the  lower  ranges  where  the  average  moisture  is 
low  Brome  grass  (Bromus  inermis)  and  Perennial  rye 
(Lolium  perene)  have  done  well,  seem  to  withstand 
the  drouthy  conditions  and  flourish  with  the  native 
grasses.  Orchard  grass,  however,  has  been  a  disap- 
pointment in  some  soils.  Where  there  is  sufficient 
moisture  on  well-drained  soils  Kentucky  bluegrass  (Poa 
pratense)  has  given  excellent  results. 

Timothy  and  redtop  both  call  for  a  moist  rich  soil 
and  while  timothy  will  withstand  more  or  less  drying 
out,  redtop  should  never  be  tried  on  land  that  becomes 
perfectly  dry  during  the  summer.  The  best  places  for 
redtop  are  cienegas  or  vegas,  low  swampy  spots  where 
there  is  always  some  moisture,  and  even  flooding  will 
not  injure  it.  Do  not  be  discouraged  if  there  is  no 
apparent  showing  for  three  or  four  years,  as  it  is  a  very 
slow  plant  to  get  started,  but  once  fairly  seeded  down 
it  will  last  practically  forever. 

Timothy,  on  the  other  hand,  starts  very  easily  with 
a  moderate  amount  of  moisture,  and  soon  gains  a  foot- 
ing. Its  vigor  is  remarkable  and  for  choking  out  poison- 
ous plants  on  meadows  it  has  proved  invaluable.  It  has 
succeeded  admirably  at  elevations  as  great  as  10,000  feet 
and  is  much  more  drouth  resistant  than  is  generally  be- 
lieved. 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE  243 

Under  a  general  diversity  of  soils,  moisture  and  range 
conditions  timothy  is  probably  the  most  satisfactory 
forage  plant  for  reseeding  operations. 

Experience  has  also  demonstrated  that  under  average 
conditions  fall  sowing  is  the  best.  The  seed  sinks 
down  into  the  soil  with  the  winter  snows  and  gets  the 
first  warm  spring  sun  to  start  it  into  life  and  before  the 
hot  summer  sun  comes  has  developed  a  sufficient  root 
system  to  live.  Moreover,  there  should  be  a  certain 
amount  of  work  done  to  get  the  seed  into  the  ground. 
This  can  always  be  best  done  in  the  fall,  when  the 
ground  is  drier  than  in  the  spring. 

Where  the  land  will  allow  it,  the  seed  should  be 
harrowed  in.  The  more  the  ground  is  stirred,  the 
better.  Where  a  harrow  cannot  be  used  a  limb  of  a  tree 
dragged  over  the  land  either  with  a  team  or  at  the 
saddle-horn  gives  fairly  good  results. 

If  available  a  band  of  sheep  fed  over  the  land  a  few 
times  also  offers  a  very  good  vehicle  for  the  purpose. 
Where  the  area  is  large  and  the  time  limited  excellent 
results  have  been  obtained  by  sowing  the  seed  on  the 
backs  of  sheep  as  they  lay  in  the  bed  ground  and  then 
grazing  them  over  the  area  for  several  days.  The  seeds 
drop  out  of  the  wool  and  are  tramped  into  the  ground 
by  the  feet  of  the  animals. 

Where  it  can  be  done  the  dividing  of  the  pasture  into 
two  or  more  tracts,  and  keeping  stock  off  for  the  grow- 
ing season,  gives  the  plants  an  opportunity  to  get  a  fair 
start,  and  after  that  they  will  take  care  of  themselves, 
if  not  too  heavily  grazed.  Of  either  of  these  seeds  sow 
not  less  than  ten  pounds  to  the  acre,  and  preferably  fif- 
teen. The  more  the  better.  Be  sure  to  get  the  seed 
true  to  its  name.  Again,  also  be  sure  to  test  it  for 


244  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

vitality.  This  is  easily  done  at  home  by  taking  a  shal- 
low tin  pan  like  a  milk  pan  and  placing  an  inch  of  clean 
sand  in  the  bottom.  Wet  the  sand  and  in  it  plant  any 
number  of  counted  seeds.  Cover  it  with  a  wet  cloth 
and  set  in  the  sun  or  some  warm  place  and  see  how 
many  seeds  sprout.  One  can  very  easily  get  a  close 
estimate  of  its  vitality.  Seed  that  will  not  show  a  per 
cent  above  70  is  not  of  first-class  grade. 

Overgrazing  vs.  Close  Grazing. — One  of  the  most 
difficult  things  which  the  forest  officer  is  called  on  to 
determine  is  whether  or  not  a  certain  range  is  being 
overgrazed  or  overstocked.  In  such  cases  the  best  pos- 
sible key  to  the  situation  is  the  condition  of  the  stock. 
An  overstocked  or  over-grazed  range  and  fat  cattle  or 
sheep  cannot  be  found  in  one  and  the  same  place. 

If  the  stock  is  fat  and  in  good  condition  at  the  close 
of  the  season,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  range  is  not 
over-stocked,  for  that  season  at  least.  If  the  season  is 
an  abnormal  one,  with  more  than  the  usual  average 
precipitation  and  plant  growth,  then  an  allowance  must 
be  made  to  make  a  fair  average  for  a  series  of  years. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  range  may  be  over-grazed 
through  having  such  a  number  of  stock  upon  it  at  all 
times  that  the  plants  are  given  no  opportunity  to  get 
their  full  development.  Plants  must  not  only  obtain 
food  from  the  soil  but  from  the  air,  and  if  kept  eaten 
down  continually  their  growth  is  weakened,  their  vital- 
ity lowered  and  they  not  only  die  out,  but  what  food 
they  do  furnish  lacks  the  necessary  fat-producing  qual- 
ities. This  is  best  illustrated  by  considering  an  ordi- 
nary meadow.  After  the  crop  has  been  mowed  there  is 
nothing  left  but  the  short  stubble,  and  if  one  judged  by 
that  one  might  say  the  field  had  been  injured.  But 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  RANGE  245 

the  plants  had  been  given  a  full  chance  to  develop,  so 
that  not  only  was  the  crop  a  first-class  feed  product 
but  the  roots  had  stored  away  sufficient  vital  forces  to 
enable  them  to  reproduce  themselves  another  season. 

So  with  the  grazing  side  of  this  question.  If  the 
number  of  stock  upon  a  range  during  the  growing  sea- 
son has  been  so  many  as  to  keep  the  plants  constantly 
grazed  down,  so  that  the  leaves  and  stems  could  neither 
develop  nor  obtain  from  the  air  the  elements  necessary 
not  only  to  make  food  but  to  enable  the  plant  to  per- 
petuate itself,  then  it  has  been  over-grazed.  Fat  stock 
will  not  be  found  on  such  a  range.  But  if  the  stock 
have  been  handled  right,  the  plants  given  a  chance  to 
grow,  though  the  ground  may  show  very  little  grass 
above  the  stubble  in  the  fall,  yet  it  has  not  been  over- 
grazed in  such  a  way  as  to  injure  it. 

All  over  the  West  one  may  see  good  examples  of  this 
sort  of  over-grazing.  Alfalfa,  one  of  the  most  persist- 
ent forage  plants  known,  has  often  been  completely 
killed  out  by  constantly  keeping  stock  on  the  field  in 
such  numbers  that  the  green  shoots  were  nipped  off 
as  fast  as  they  appeared  above  the  ground.  Thus  the 
plants  did  not  derive  any  food  from  the  sun  and  air, 
their  vitality  was  lowered,  the  roots  were  weakened 
and  they  finally  die — simply  starved  to  death.  Then 
the  farmer  declares  his  alfalfa  has  "run  out,"  takes  his 
harrow  and  rips  up  the  surface  of  the  ground,  lets  the 
light  in  on. the  roots,  scatters  a  little  fresh  seed  over 
the  worst  places  and  keeps  his  stock  off  it  a  while  and 
soon  has  his  field  as  good  as  ever. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
POISONOUS  PLANTS. 

The  losses  to  the  stockmen  using  the  western  ranges 
through  poisonous  and  injurious  plants  amount  to  an  im- 
mense sum  each  year.  Some  of  the  losses  are  unavoid- 
able, some  can  be  minimized,  and  others  may  be  almost 
entirely  done  away  with. 

These  losses  are  due  to  two  causes,  the  first  may  be 
called  mechanical,  and  is  not  due  to  the  poison  in  the 
plant  but  to  the  effect  upon  the  animal  through  other 
means.  Under  this  head  come  bloat,  death  from  corn 
smut,  also  from  foxtail  (Hordeum),  Porcupine  grass 
(Stipa),  and  needle  grass  (Aristida),  whose  sharp- 
pointed  awns  work  their  way  into  the  lining  of  the 
mouth,  lips,  eyes  and  nostrils,  causing  festering  sores, 
frequently  becoming  so  bad  as  to  cause  the  death  of  the 
animal  through  starvation.  In  corn  smut  the  dry  spores 
expand  through  the  action  of  the  liquid  in  the  stomach 
and  obstruct  its  operation. 

The  second  cause  is  the  poison  contained  in  the 
various  plants.  In  considering  this  subject  it  is  gener- 
ally assumed  by  the  average  stockman  that  most  an- 
imals have  a  keen  sense  of  danger  in  seeking  their  feed, 
and  can  almost  unerringly  select  the  harmless  plants 
from  the  injurious  ones. 

To  a  certain  extent  this  may  be  true.  If  the  animals 
are  surrounded  with  plenty  of  feed  from  which  to 

246 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  247 

choose  they  will  generally  leave  the  injurious  plants 
alone,  excepting  possibly  the  lupines.  This,  however, 
seems  due  more  to  a  possibility  that  the  injurious  plants 
are  not  so  palatable  as  others.  So  long  as  the  animal  is 
not  too  hungry  it  will  content  itself  with  selections  from 
the  best,  but  when  hungry  and  on  an  over-grazed  range, 
it  seems  to  turn  to  the  injurious  plants  as  second  choice, 
eating  them  with  apparent  relish. 

To  prove  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  point  to  the 
experience  of  almost  every  sheepman  in  the  West  who 
has  had  losses  from  injurious  plants.  In  a  large  number 
of  cases  the  poisoned  animals  have  either  been  driven 
through  a  section  where  feed  was  scarce  or  hurried  on 
long,  hard  drives  and  then  allowed  to  graze  a  range 
containing  inferior  feed  and  plentiful  poisonous  plants. 
Under  such  conditions  the  ability  of  the  animals  to 
distinguish  between  the  good  and  bad  either  by  sight 
or  smell  seems  to  be  at  fault,  or  else  is  disregarded 
because  of  hunger. 

Another  frequent  cause  of  losses  is  when  sheep,  hav- 
ing been  shipped  on  the  cars,  are  unloaded  and  driven 
out  on  a  strange  range  for  feed  or  water.  Whether  they 
are  unusually  hungry  or  not  used  to  the  range,  if  there 
are  any  poisonous  plants  on  it  losses  are  certain  to 
follow.  Some  plants  like  death  camas  are  so  similar 
to  grass  in  their  earlier  growth  that  stock  cannot  dis- 
tinguish them  from  grass  and  are  eaten  unknowingly. 

It  is  therefore  safe  to  presume  that  taste  and  smell 
and  possibly  sight  have  comparatively  little  to  do  with 
animals  avoiding  poisonous  plants.  If  it  is  due  to  any- 
thing it  is  to  that  indefinable  sense  in  animals  called 
instinct. 

Under  ordinary  conditions   sheep  will   not  touch   the 


248  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

leaves  of  the  choke  cherry  (Prunus  demissa),  yet  when 
driven  over  hard  trails  where  feed  was  scarce  and  then 
through  thickets  of  that  shrub  they  have  eaten  the 
leaves  greedily  and  died  in  great  numbers. 

Herders  Should  Be  Posted. — It  would  therefore  seem 
that  every  herder  in  charge  of  stock  and  especially 
sheep  should  be  posted  as  to  the  different  poisonous  or 
dangerous  plants  with  a  view  to  avoiding  as  much  as 
possible  such  accidents.  There  are  but  a  few  really 
dangerous  plants  and  if  herders  knew  them  by  sight 
much  loss  could  be  avoided. 

Some  plants  seem  to  be  more  dangerous  after  heavy 
rains  or  dews  than  at  other  times.  This  may  be  ascrib- 
able  to  the  fact  that  the  ground  is  soft  and  the  animals 
in  pulling  at  the  stalks  pull  up  the  roots  also.  It  has 
heretofore  been  accepted  as  a  fact  that  the  root  of  the 
low  or  purple  larkspur  contains  the  poisonous  prop- 
erty, but  careful  experiments  have  proved  this  an  error, 
for  the  roots  have  been  fed  to  cattle  in  both  large  and 
small  quantities  without  any  injurious  effect  whatever. 

It  is  also  a  very  difficult  matter  to  pull  up  the  roots 
even  when  the  ground  is  soft — so  difficult,  in  fact,  that  no 
steer  could  possibly  obtain  much  of  it.  Others  like  the 
lupines  seem  to  be  perfectly  safe  when  the  plant  is  young 
and  only  dangerous  when  ripe.  On  the  other  hand,  sev- 
eral varieties,  the  larkspur  and  the  camas  seem  to  be 
harmless,  or  possibly  unpalatable  and  are  not  eaten  by 
the  animals,  after  they  have  reached  more  or  less  full 
growth. 

On  these  ranges  the  matter  can  be  handled  by  simply 
keeping  the  stock  off  the  poisonous  areas  until  the 
danger  is  past.  This  cannot  always  be  done  with  cattle 
and  horses  but  may  be  done  with  sheep. 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  249 

Remedies. — A  common  practice  among  western  stock- 
men, cowboys  and  others  when  animals  are  poisoned, 
is  to  keep  them  continually  moving.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  this  can  be  called  a  safe  thing  to  do  in  many 
cases,  while  in  some  it  is  a  positive  injury. 

Generally  speaking  the  best  thing  to  do  with  such 
animals  is  to  let  them  move  about  or  lie  still  as  they 
please.  Bleeding  is  another  famous  "rough  and  ready" 
remedy  which  should  be  more  honored  in  the  breach 
than  the  observance.  The  sins  that  have  been  com- 
mitted against  poor,  weak,  helpless  animals  by  bleeding 
them  are  too  numerous  to  mention.  Few  cases  of 
poisoning  in  animals  of  any  kind  can  be  helped  in  this 
manner. 

There  are  several  handy  remedies  which  stockmen 
usually  try  when  remedial  agents  are  necessary.  The 
commonest  is  grease,  either  hot  lard,  melted  bacon  or 
oils  of  various  sorts.  These  given  either  as  injections 
or  drenches  are  excellent  in  most  cases  of  poisoning. 
They  furnish  a  coating  for  the  lining  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  assist  in  movements  of  the  bowels  and 
aid  in  eliminating  the  poison  from  the  animal's  stomach. 

Baking  soda  (bicarbonate  of  soda)  is  another  handy 
remedy  which  is  given  where  the  poison  is  supposed 
to  contain  an  unusual  amount  of  acid,  while  vinegar 
is  freely  used  for  alkaloid  poisons.  I  have  seen  stock- 
men give  both  to  an  animal  at  the  same  time  and  as 
one  in  a  way  neutralizes  the  other  the  result  would 
seem  to  be  bad  for  the  animal.  Lard  and  grease  are 
also  of  value  in  the  early  stages  of  bloat.  Nature  is 
assisted  by  them  in  removing  through  the  bowels  the 
load  of  fermenting  food  which  makes  the  bloated  con- 
dition. 


250  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

In  cases  of  paralysis  through  poison  the  injection  of 
hypodermic  doses  of  strychnine  together  with  alcoholic 
or  other  stimulants  to  control  the  symptoms  of  paralysis 
is  often  used  with  excellent  results.  On  the  other  hand, 
where  the  pain  is  intense,  as  in  hemlock  poisoning, 
doses  of  morphine  or  chloral  are  successful.  Strych- 
nine is  also  the  most  satisfactory  remedy  known  for 
loco  in  cattle.  For  horses  suffering  from  loco  Fowler's 
Solution  in  half-ounce  doses  in  either  drinking  water 
or  feed  is  successful. 

Permanganate  of  Potash. — In  the  large  majority  of 
cases  where  animals  have  been  poisoned  by  plants  the 
use  of  permanganate  of  potash  offers  the  most  satisfac- 
tory remedy  known  to  medical  science.  It  is  easily  ap- 
plied, easily  carried  in  packs  or  wagons  and  should  be 
kept  in  every  camp  and  stockman's  cabin.  It  may  be 
given  direct  as  a  drench  or  as  an  injection  through  the 
wall  of  the  stomach.  The  drench  is,  of  course,  the 
easier  method.  It  does  not  affect  the  general  condition 
of  the  animal.  What  it  does  do  is  to  get  at  the  poison 
lying  in  the  stomach  and  intestines  and  not  already 
taken  up  in  the  system  and  through  its  well  known 
chemical  properties  attack  the  poisonous  alkaloids, 
rendering  them  harmless. 

In  preparing  the  drench  of  permanganate  of  potash 
for  sheep  take  equal  amounts  of  permanganate  of  potash 
and  sulphate  of  aluminum,  five  to  ten  grains  of  each, 
and  dissolve  in  water.  Pulverizing  before  placing  in 
the  water  will  get  better  results.  See  that  all  is  taken 
up  in  the  water,  as  the  raw  salts  are  very  injurious  to 
the  lining  of  mouth  and  throat.  For  lambs  use  about 
three  grains  each;  for  horses  fifteen  to  twenty  grains; 
for  cattle  thirty  to  fifty  grains. 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  251 

If  there  are  a  great  number  of  animals  to  be  drenched 
the  mixture  can  be  made  according  to  this  scale  in  large 
quantities  and  given  on  the  basis  of  a  pint  of  water  to 
each  dose.  A  drench  is  best  given  through  a  horn,  as 
there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  broken  as  a  bottle  may  be. 
Set  a  sheep  up  to  give  a  drench  but  larger  animals  must 
of  course  be  thrown.  Never  drench  an  animal  through 
the  nostrils.  Think  how  it  hurts  to  get  liquids  in  one's 
own  nose.  A  gentle  horse  may  be  tied  to  a  high  post 
so  that  his  head  is  at  the  right  angle,  taking  care  not 
to  have  the  rope  tied  hard  and  fast,  lest  the  animal  cast 
itself  in  struggling  and  choke  before  it  can  be  relieved. 

A  cow,  if  lying  down,  should  have  her  head  set  up 
on  the  horns,  or,  if  standing,  handle  her  much  as 
directed  in  the  case  of  a  horse.  Slip  the  drenching  in- 
strument into  the  mouth,  taking  care  that  it  is  not 
allowed  to  get  between  the  grinders  and,  if  a  bottle, 
be  broken.  Allow  the  liquid  to  slowly  find  its  way 
down  the  throat.  Give  time  for  the  animal  to  swallow, 
remembering  it  is  a  case  of  forcing  and  that  it  will  be 
likely  to  put  off  swallowing  as  long  as  it  can. 

Poisons  Do  Not  Affect  All  Animals  Alike.— Stock- 
men have  often  been  puzzled  over  the  way  in  which 
animals  in  the  same  herd  and  subjected  to  the  same 
conditions  are  affected  by  poisonous  plants.  With  sheep 
this  is  quite  noticeable.  Out  of  a  herd  of  sheep  many 
will  die  at  once;  others  linger  along  and  recover,  and 
some  do  not  appear  to  be  troubled  at  all.  This,  in 
ruminants,  generally  is  due  to  the  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal's stomach. 

As  few  poisons  can  injuriously  affect  an  animal  until 
taken  into  its  system,  if  the  stomach  is  full  the  progress 
of  the  poisonous  matter  is  slow  and  may  be  all  neutral- 


252  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

ized  by  the  amount  of  feed  in  the  stomach.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  stomach  is  empty,  it  enters  the  cir- 
culation at  once,  the  animal  is  soon  affected  by  the 
poison  and  remedial  measures  are  seldom  in  time. 

Bloat. — As  bloat  is  not  the  result  of  a  poison  it  comes 
immediately  under  the  head  of  mechanically  dangerous 
plants.  It  is  confined  principally  to  alfalfa,  although  all 
the  legumes,  like  red  and  white  clover,  will  cause  bloat 
in  stock  when  eaten  under  certain  conditions.  There 
are  several  range  plants  which  will  do  this.  Cattle 
eating  large  quantities  of  lupines  after  heavy  rains  or 
when  wet  with  heavy  dews  have  been  known  to  bloat 
and  die,  but  stockmen's  losses  from  bloat  in  the  West 
are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  feeding  of  alfalfa. 

Generally  speaking,  the  dangerous  time  is  when  the 
alfalfa  is  from  three  to  eight  inches  in  height,  and  also 
when. wet  with  heavy  dews  or  recent  rains.  The  usual 
method  of  handling  it  in  the  early  spring  is  to  sow 
among  the  plants  some  seed  like  oats  or  barley.  This 
springs  up  with  the  alfalfa  and  is  cropped  with  the 
latter  as  the  stock  grazes,  thus  keeping  the  stomach 
from  becoming  solid  with  the  gas  producing  plant. 

Bloat  is  simply  the  gas  produced  from  fermenting 
feed,  which  gradually  crowds  the  stomach  and  other 
organs  forward  until  the  action  of  the  heart  and  lungs 
is  seriously  interfered  with.  The  work  of  the  gas  may 
readily  be  noted  by  standing  behind  the  animal.  The 
left  side  of  the  body  will  be  seen  to  protrude  several 
inches  farther  than  the  right,  forming  a  huge  lump  just 
back  of  the  ribs  and  making  the  animal  appear  de- 
cidedly "lop-sided."  This  is  the  distended  stomach 
pressing  against  the  hide  of  the  animal. 

Old   alfalfa-raised   cows   feeling  the   pressure   coming 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  253 

on  will  go  to  the  irrigating  ditches  and  stand  with  their 
front  feet  high  up  on  the  bank  of  the  ditch  and  their 
hind  feet  in  the  water,  thus  allowing  the  stomach  to 
drop  back  and  relieve  the  pressure  on  the  other  organs. 
They  will  groan  and  grunt  at  a  great  rate,  showing  they 
are  feeling  far  from  comfortable,  and  animals  in  this 
condition  should  be  carefully  watched. 

I  have  known  a  ditch  to  break  and  allow  the  water 
to  run  unnoticed  all  night  long  on  the  alfalfa  where  a 
hundred  fine  four-year-old  steers  were  grazing.  The 
effect  of  the  water  on  the  alfalfa  was  so  prompt  that  in 
less  than  twelve  hours  fifty  of  the  animals  were  dead 
from  bloat.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  the  animal  be- 
coming immune  in  any  sense  of  the  word. 

Nor  is  the  bloat  due  wholly  to  green  feed.  I  have 
known  a  bunch  of  fifty  yearlings  put  into  a  feed  yard 
over  night  and  fed  on  dry  alfalfa  hay  and  in  the  mor- 
ning ten  of  them  were  dead  from  bloat.  Milk  cows, 
fed  all  their  lives  on  the  hay,  have  been  killed  from 
eating  alfalfa.  Investigation  of  many  such  cases  shows 
that  generally  death  resulted  from  eating  hay  coming 
from  the  first  cutting,  and  also  that  the  animals  had 
eaten  unusually  large  amounts  of  the  fine  leaves. 

Sheep,  although  subject  to  bloat,  do  not  seem  to  be 
so  easily  affected  as  cattle,  and  the  loss  among  sheep 
from  this  trouble  is  comparatively  slight.  Horses  and 
hogs  do  not  appear  to  bloat  from  either  green  or  cured 
alfalfa. 

As  a  general  thing,  cattle  grazing  upon  alfalfa  fields 
should  always  be  carefully  watched,  especially  in  the 
early  spring,  when  the  plant  is  just  starting  to  grow. 
When  the  trouble  reaches  a  certain  point  immediate 
action  is  necessary  or  the  animal  is  beyond  help.  The 


254  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

gas  pressure  against  the  heart  and  lungs  simply  stops 
the  breath,  and  it  is  but  a  matter  of  seconds  if  the 
animal  is  to  be  saved. 

Various  remedial  methods  are  practiced  among  stock- 
men to  aid  the  animal.  Baking  soda  (bicarbonate  of 
sodium)  is  frequently  used  as  drench  in  the  early  stages, 
but  its  value  is  somewhat  doubtful.  Shoving  a  piece  of 
garden  hose  down  the  animal's  throat  is  also  a  common 
expedient.  This  opens  up  the  throat  and  stomach  and 
allows  the  gas  to  escape.  Many  stockmen  will  tie  a 
"bit"  composed  of  a  piece  of  hoe  or  shovel  handle  about 
eight  inches  long  into  the  animal's  jaws.  This  keeps 
the  jaws  open  and  allows  some  of  the  gas  to  escape. 

Some  stockmen,  seeing  a  tendency  to  bloat  among  a 
bunch  of  cattle,  will  go  into  the  fields  on  good  horses 
and  with  whips  run  the  animals  about  the  field  for  half 
an  hour.  If  the  trouble  has  not  gone  too  far  this  will 
often  bring  relief. 

The  one  certain  remedy  forbloat,is  what  is  known 
among  stockmen  as  'tpaunchmg^or  tTunienatomy.''  If 
you  will  notice  the  old  milk  cows  in  an  alfalfa  growing 
region,  you  will  see  just  below  the  left  hip  bone  and 
about  four  inches  back  from  the  last  small  rib  a  number 
of  scars.  Sometimes  you  will  see  an  open  wound,  and 
if  you  happen  along  when  the  animal  coughs  you  may 
see  a  thin  stream  of  green  half-digested  alfalfa  spurt 
from  the  wound.  This  is  the  result  of  "paunching." 
The  stream  of  alfalfa  is  forced  out  of  the  stomach  by 
the  cough  through  a  wound  not  yet  healed. 

Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  perform  this  surgical 
operation  there  is  little  time  in  which  to  speculate  and 
study  up  on  the  proper  methods.  "Do  it  now"  is  emi- 
nently applicable  to  this  affair,  for  every  second  counts. 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  255 

This  is  especially  true  if  the  animal  is  down  on  its  side. 
There  is  no  premonitory  sign  or  long-drawn-out  death 
struggle.  The  breath  stops  and  the  animal  is  dead. 

If  you  have  a  trocar  andl/catmlause  it;  if  not,  take  a 
pocket  knife,  for  there  is  not  time  to  ,go  to  the  house 

<^t<^v<-xV^-/>^>-j4**- 

for  the  former.  A  trocar  and  canula  is  a  long,  sharp, 
steel  instrument  similar  to  an  ice  pick.  It  has  a  metal 
scabbard  over  it  and  when  plunged  into  the  animal's 
side  the  toof  itself  is  withdrawn,  leaving  the  scabbard 
or  canula  in  the  wound  through  which  the  gas  may 
escape.  I  have  heard  of  using  the  long  sharp  nose  of 
an  ordinary  oil  can.  Force  through  the  hide  and 
stomach  and  then  unscrew  the  can  and  leave  the  point 
in  place. 

Select  a  spot  five  inches  below  the  hip  bone  on  the 
left  side  and  about  as  far  back  from  the  last  small 
ribs.  Here  the  hide  and  the  wall  of  the  stomach  come 
close  together.  Into  it  plunge  the  instrument  or  knife 
blade.  Don't  be  afraid  to  do  it  boldly,  for  you  have  a 
thick  hide  to  penetrate  and  also  the  stomach  lining. 
Look  out  that  the  knife  blade  does  not  close  up  on  your 
fingers  and  make  a  nasty  cut.  Also  keep  your  mouth 
closed  and  head  away  from  the  line  of  the  cut,  in  order 
to  avoid  receiving  at  short  range  some  of  the  contents 
of  the  stomach  in  the  way  of  gas  together  with  a  goodly 
amount  of  half-digested  alfalfa. 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  open  the 
stomach  and  remove  the  contents,  but  this  is  not  often. 
The  gas  rushes  out  of  the  cut  from  the  stomach  and  the 
animal  is  immediately  relieved,  as  a  man  would  be  if 
some  one  had  him  by  the  throat  and  suddenly  released 
him.  Smear  a  little  grease  or  tar  about  the  cut  to  keep 
out  flies  and  screw  worms ;  sew  it  up  with  a  stitch  or 


256  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

two  if  you  wish,  and  the  place  soon  heals  over.  In  the 
majority  of  cases  the  application  of  pine  tar  or  grease 
is  all  that  is  necessary. 

Loco. — While  the  annual  losses  from  the  loco  plant 
may  not  foot  up  as  much  as  from  some  others,  it  is 
believed  that  in  this  respect  it  stands  well  towards  the 
head  of  the  list.  Certainly  it  is  more  in  the  public  eye 
than  any  other  single  poisonous  plant  in  the  whole 
West.  The  loco  plant  is  found  generally  over  the  entire 
Rocky  Mountain  region.  Extend  the  eastern  boundary 
line  of  the  states  of  Montana  and  Wyoming  directly 
south  till  it  touches  the  Rio  Grande  river,  and  you  have 
about  the  center  of  the  area  covered  by  the  plant, 
making"  a  strip  some  600  miles  wide  and  extending 
from  the  Canadian  to  the  Mexican  borders. 

Loco  is  found  everywhere.  It  is  most  common  on 
the  open  prairies  but  grows  plentifully  in  the  moun- 
tains where  the  elevation  does  not  appear  to  make  any 
particular  difference  in  its  growth.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  the  plant,  as  well  as  several  other  plants 
mistakenly  called  loco.  However,  the  fact  has  been 
very  well  established  that  there  are  but  two  species 
which  are  generally  called  loco.  These  are  aragallus 
lamberti,  and  astragalus  mollissimus.  Of  the  two  the 
former  is  the  most  widely  distributed  and  is  responsible 
for  most  of  the  damage  to  stock.  Both  have  flowers 
of  various  hues,  ranging  from  deep  violet  to  rich  purple, 
not  unlike  those  of  the  common  sweet  pea. 

In  aragallus  lamberti,  the  plants  growing  on  the 
prairies  are  frequently  a  beautiful  creamy  white,  while 
in  the  mountains  the  darker  colors  are  more  prominent. 
In  places  the.  loco  grows  in  great  patches  and  to  the 
uninitiated  looks  like  a  field  of  alfalfa.  On  the  plains 


White  Loco  or  Rattle  Weed  in  Flower   (Aragallus  lamberti). 


258  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

east  of  Albuquerque,  N.  M.,  in  May,  1912,  loco  was 
so  plentiful  that  the  brilliant  coloring  of  its  blossoms 
could  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  for  three  or  four  miles, 
the  patches  often  covering  100  acres  in  one  solid  bed 
of  color.  It  is  also  a  well  established  fact  that  loco  is 
not  plentiful  every  year  but  seems  to  come  in  for  a  sea- 
son and  then  not  be  heard  from  for  several  years.  Every 
western  stockman  knows  that  a  wet  spring  or  winter 
will  be  followed  by  a  bad  loco  year.  For  this  reason  it 


Loco   on   the   Range   Near   Albuquerque,    N.    M. 

is  presumed  that  the  seeds   in  order  to  germinate   re- 
quire an  unusual  amount  of  moisture. 

For  many  years  scientists  investigating  losses  from 
loco  asserted  that  the  plant  contained  no  apparently 
injurious  matter  and  that  the  loco  effect  must  come 
from  other  causes.  But  this  was  received  by  stockmen 
with  little  credence;  they  simply  pointed  to  the  afflicted 
animals  and  showed  the  undoubted  connection  between 
the  eating  of  the  loco  and  the  serious  condition  of  the 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  259 

animals  soon  after.  However,  the  matter  has  recently 
been  carefully  investigated  by  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  with  the  result  that  the  poison 
in  the  plant  has  been  separated  and  identified,  and  fol- 
lowing this  remedies  have  been  tried  which  have  re- 
sulted in  complete  cures  of  animals  badly  locoed,  leav- 
ing no  injurious  after  effects.  Thus  the  contentions  of 
the  practical  stockmen  have  been  completely  sustained 
by  the  scientific  investigators. 

While  the  eating  of  loco  is  found  to  affect  horses, 
cattle,  sheep  and  goats,  it  is  among  horses  that  the  most 
damage  is  done.  It  is  only  occasionally  that  there  is 
what  is  known  as  a  "loco  year,"  during  which  sheep 
and  cattle  die  from  eating  it.  But  horses  die  every  year 
when  the  plant  is  plentiful.  This  I  have  always  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  the  horse  is  not  a  browsing 
animal.  The  green  loco  appeals  more  to  him  in  the 
early  spring  when  there  is  little  green  feed  than  to  the 
other  stock  which,  being  browsing  animals,  find  in  the 
young  buds  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  and  the  weed 
growth  something  to  take  the  place  of  the  loco. 

The  spring  of  1888  was  a  bad  loco  season  in  northern 
Arizona,  and  thousands  of  locoed  horses  and  cattle 
died.  The  winter  previous  was  unusually  wet,  with 
heavy  rains  in  the  early  spring,  and  long  before  the 
first  shoots  of  young  grass  showed  above  the  ground 
the  loco  was  spreading  its  beautiful  growth  all  over  the 
ranges. 

One  peculiarity  of  the  losses  among  the  cattle  was 
that  the  better  grades,  the  imported  stock,  were  more 
easily  affected  than  the  common  scrubs.  Whether  this 
was  due  to  the  superior  instinct  of  the  western-raised 
animal  cannot  of  course  be  proved,  but  it  is  not  very 


260  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

probable  that  it  had  much  to  do  with  it.  In  my  opinion 
the  westerners  were  tougher  and  more  able  to  stand 
the  effects. 

Seven  years  later  there  was  another  bad  loco  year, 
but  that  time  it  was  almost  entirely  among  horses.  This 
was  also  the  case  in  an  outbreak  in  northern  New  Mex- 
ico in  1906,  when  so  many  hors.es  died  in  some  districts 
that  the  spring  round-ups  had  to  be  abandoned  because 
"everybody  was  afoot/'  as  the  cowmen  put  it. 


I 


>: 

A  Locoed  Animal  Will   Step  High  Over  Anything — Even   a  Rope   or  a   Trail. 

The  round-up  work  could  not  be  taken  up  until  fall, 
and  a  new  lot  of  ponies  had  been  shipped  in  from  other 
ranges  where  loco  had  not  made  its  appearance.  Yet  in 
spite  of  the  losses  among  horses  practically  no  cattle 
died  from  it  that  year. 

Loco  Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  loco  poisoning 
are  so  well  known  that  it  hardly  seems  necessary  to 
repeat  them  here.  The  animal  loses  flesh,  every  hair  on 
its  body  seems  to  have  turned  the  wrong  way,  its  eyes 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  251 

are  staring  and  sunken  and  the  gait  becomes  wabbly 
and  uncertain.  In  cattle  a  common  symptom  is  the  for- 
mation of  a  serous  sack  under  the  jaws,  often  hanging 
down  like  a  great  pouch.  The  eyesight  appears  to  be 
affected  because  the  animal  will  "step  high"  over  a 
simple  rut  or  wagon  track  in  the  road  or  a  rope  or  even 
a  twig  on  the  ground.  Locoed  horses  often  cannot  be 
led  through  a  gate,  but  must  be  turned  round  and 


A   Typical   Locoed   Animal, 

forced  through  backwards.  Again  they  cannot  be 
backed  excepting  by  the  most  violent  efforts,  but  if  once 
they  start  back  nothing  but  a  mountain  can  stop  them. 
I  once  saw  a  locoed  mule  driven  by  an  Irishman  who 
had  never  heard  of  loco.  The  animal  was  attached  to 
a  dump  cart  and  was  being  backed  up  to  a  cliff  over 
which  the  refuse  of  a  military  post  was  being  dumped. 
On  the  edge  of  the  cliff  a  log  twelve  inches  thick  was 
fastened  as  a  bumper  against  which  to  back  the  wheels 


262  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

of  the  carts.  It  took  the  driver  some  time  to  get  the 
mule  to  back,  but  when,  after  a  lot  of  profanity  and 
righting,  the  poor  animal  decided  to  do  what  was  wanted 
he  did  so  with  so  much  enthusiasm  that  when  the 
wheels  struck  the  log  they  went  over  it  as  if  it  were 
a  straw,  and  with  the  Irishman  swinging  to  the  bit 
the  outfit  dropped  over  the  cliff  where,  a  hundred  feet 
below,  it  still  lies  among  the  rocks.  The  driver  hung 
on  until  he  saw  it  was  useless,  and  then  let  go  just  in 
time  to  save  himself  from  a  like  fate. 

One  of  the  very  best  and  toughest  cow  ponies  I  ever 
owned  was  a  locoed  horse  that  could  not  be  led  two  feet 
by  the  bridle  reins.  The  only,  possible  way  to  handle 
him  was  to  get  him  ahead  and  drive  or  herd  him  along. 
As  for  getting  him  across  a  rope  laid  on  the  ground, 
I  believe  that  if  a  rope  had  been  laid  on  the  ground  in 
a  complete  circle  around  him  he  would  have  starved 
to  death  before  passing  over  it.  Running  him  at  full 
speed  after  a  cow  he  was  apt  at  any  time  to  jump  three 
feet  into  the  air  to  clear  some  inoffensive  little  white 
stick  lying  on  the  ground. 

Locoed  animals  seem  inclined  to  fall  very  readily, 
especially  when  drinking;  During  the  outbreak  in  Ari- 
zona in  1895  we  were  forced  to  keep  men  at  a  stream 
where  many  horses  were  watering  to  drag  out  those 
that  fell  into  the  creek  or  else  have  them  drown  in  two 
feet  of  water.  In  spite  of  this  many  of  those  that  came 
to  water  at  night  were  drowned.  I  have  seen  large 
numbers  of  dead  horses  lying  about  the  edge  of  a  prairie 
lake  which  did  not  have  have  more  than  two  feet  of 
water  in  its  deepest  place. 

Loco-eating  is  a  developed  habit.  The  animal  begins 
to  nibble  at  it  probably  because  other  feed  is  scarce  and 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  263 

it  looks  fresh  and  inviting.  Gradually  the  desire  for  it 
takes  possession  of  the  brutes  until  they  seem  to  crave 
it  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  feed.  A  locoed  cow  will 
hurry  over  the  range  from  one  plant  to  the  next,  eating 
in  a  feverish  haste,  and  showing  not  the  least  desire  to 
touch  grass  or  other  forage,  so  long  as  there  is  a  bit  of 
loco  to  be  found. 

Remedies. — The  loco  plant  may  be  eradicated  from 
pastures  by  simply  cutting  it  off  under  the  ground  or 
pulling  it  up  by  the  roots  like  any  other  weed.  There 
has  been  a  general  belief  all  over  the  West  that  loco 
grows  up  again  from  the  roots  and  if  a  single  shoot  of 
it  is  left  in  the  ground  it  will  immediately  reproduce 
itself  from  that  bit.  This  has  been  found  to  be  an  error. 
The  plant  reproduces  from  both  roots  and  the  seed  but 
the  growth  is  from  the  crown  of  the  root,  and  therefore 
if  the  root  is  cut  off  below  the  crown  and  before  the 
ripening  of  the  seeds  it  will  not  grow  again. 

Of  course  on  the  open  ranges,  under  the  present 
methods  of  handling  the  grazing  lands,  no  attempts  at 
eradication  will  be  made,  but  if  the  day  ever  comes 
when  the  open  grazing  lands  are  handled  by  the  Federal 
Government,  much  as  they  are  now  managed  on  the 
National  Forests,  loco  will  doubtless  be  eradicated  from 
the  ranges  on  some  mutual  agreement  between  the  user 
and  the  Government.  The  excellent  work  of  Prof.  C.  D. 
Marsh  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  who  has  for 
several  years  made  a  close  study  of  loco  right  in  the 
field  where  it  grows,  proves  beyond  doubt  that  there 
is  a  remedy,  and  that  animals  taken  in  time  may  be 
almost  if  not  entirely  cured.  The  only  question  is  the 
one  of  handling  the  animals.  If  they  are  gentle  and 
can  be  given  the  remedies,  they  can  be  cured.  With 


264  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

range  stock,  however,  the  administering  of  the  remedies 
is  almost  an  impossibility,  except  at  a  prohibitive  cost  in 
time  and  labor.  The  remedies  used  by  Prof.  Marsh 
and  the  manner  of  administering  them  are  given  at  the 
end  of  this  chapter  under  the  general  head  of  remedies. 

Larkspur  (Delphinium). — This  plant  probably  comes 
next  to  loco  in  its  ravages  among  stockmen's  herds. 
The  losses  are  confined  almost  entirely  to  cattle,  sheep 
seldom  or  never  touching  the  plant.  For  this  reason  a 
range  when  it  is  abundant  may  safely  be  grazed  by 
sheep  and  need  not  be  abandoned  because  of  Larkspur. 
It  is  found  all  over  the  western  region,  growing  in  the 
open  park-like  places  of  the  foothills  and  mountain 
ranges.  There  are  several  species,  and  according  to  the 
best  authorities  the  genus  is  not  well  divided,  and  needs 
study  and  revision.  All  of  the  various  kinds  should, 
however,  be  considered  suspicious.  The  principal 
species  are  tall  larkspur  (Delphinium  glaucum)  and 
purple  larkspur  (bicolor). 

Tall  larkspur  grows  to  a  height  of  from  three  to  six 
feet.  In  its  early  growth  it  is  frequently  mistaken  for 
wild  geranium  (Geranium  viscosissimum).  It  is  also 
classed  as  aconite  (Aconitum  columbianum).  It  can  be 
easily  identified  by  the  leaves,  those  of  the  larkspur 
being  almost  perfectly  smooth,  while  those  of  the  gera- 
nium are  more  or  less  hairy. 

Purple  larkspur  seldom  grows  to  a  height  of  over  ten 
inches.  It  bears  a  lovely  purple  blossom.  The  differ- 
ence in  size,  together  with  the  color  of  the  blossom, 
affords  a  ready  means  of  distinguishing  between  the 
two  plants.  The  flowers  of  the  tall  larkspur  are  blue. 
Before  they  blossom  the  larkspurs  may  be  mistaken 
for  red  false  mallow  (Malvastrum  coccineum),  but  the 


Original  water  color  by  N.  Brenizer  \-^V^  AHOEuaco  BALTIMOI 

PURPLE  LARKSPUR   (Delphinium  bicolor) 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  265 

bright  red  blossoms  of  the  latter  when  in  bloom  furnish 
a  certain  means  of  identification.  The  plant  is  generally 
dangerous  when  young  and  tender,  and  cattle  seldom 
touch  it  after  it  has  reached  its  blossoming  time.  Sheep 
have  been  fed  the  dried  as  well  as  green  leaves  for 
several  days  with  no  apparent  ill  effects.  Extracts  from 
the  dried  leaves,  however,  proved  fatal.  So  far  as  is 
known  no  definite  feeding  experiments  have  been  made 
with  cattle,  but  the  Department  of  Agriculture  is  now 
planning  a  careful  study  of  this  plant  which  when  com- 
pleted will  give  some  more  definite  information  about  it. 

The  larkspur  may  be  dug  up  with  little  trouble,  and 
if  it  is  not  widely  distributed  or  very  numerous  it  could 
be  eventually  eliminated  from  a  range  by  using  the 
ordinary  weeding  tools  sold  for  that  purpose.  Where 
it  exists  in  large  patches  it  is  thought  possible  to  choke 
it  out  with  certain  grasses  like  orchard  and  brome  grass. 
No  very  satisfactory  experiments  have  yet  been  made 
along  these  lines,  however. 

Lupines  (Lupinus). — The  extent  of  the  country  over 
which  this  plant  is  found  makes  it  one  of  the  most 
injurious  of  all  the  poisonous  plants.  Practically  it 
grows  all  over  the  West  and  at  all  elevations.  Eaten 
at  certain  times  and  under  certain  conditions  it  is  ex- 
tremely injurious  to  horses,  cattle  and  sheep.  The  com- 
mon name  among  stockmen  is  wild  pea,  blue  pea,  blue 
bean  and  peavine.  It  is  often  mistaken  for  a  variety 
of  loco,  especially  the  silvery  loco  (Aragallus  splen- 
dens),  but  the  leaves  offer  an  easy  means  of  identifica- 
tion. The  leaf  of  the  lupine  is  compound  and  is 
attached  to  the  end  of  the  stem,  while  the  leaf  of  loco  is 
long  and  feathery  with  the  parts  attached  to  the  stem 
along  each  side  of  it.  (See  frontispiece.) 


266  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

The  lupines  are  found  in  the  mountain  valleys  and 
hay  meadows,  and  are  cut  for  hay  in  large  quantities 
all  over  the  western  country,  making  an  excellent  grade 
of  hay  that  is  relished  by  all  classes  of  stock.  But  the 
feeding  of  it  has  been  attended  with  disastrous  results, 
especially  in  the  case  of  sheep.  A  careful  study  of  the 
subject  has  proved  beyond  reasonable  doubt  that  the 
poisonous  matter  is  contained  in  the  ripe  seeds.  Hence 
if  the  lupine  can  be  cut  for  hay  either  before  the  seed 
pods  have  fully  formed  and  ripened  or  after  they  have 
ripened  and  the  pods  have  opened  and  dropped  the  dan- 
gerous seeds,  there  is  no  injury  from  feeding  it.  When 
the  plant  is  young  it  is  eaten  without  bad  effect  and  is 
eagerly  sought  by  all  kinds  of  stock. 

There  are  several  different  lupines  and  all  should  be 
considered  under  suspicion  when  the  seed  is  ripe. 
Owing  to  its  extensive  growth  there  is  little  hope  of 
eliminating  the  lupine  through  its  destruction  or  by 
sowing  seeds  of  other  forage  plants,  as  it  is  very 
tenacious  and  will  hold  its  own  against  them  under 
ordinary  range  conditions. 

Death  Camas  (Zygadenus  venenosus.) — This  plant, 
sometimes  erroneously  'called  lobelia,  is  found  only  in 
Montana,  Idaho,  South  Dakota,  eastern  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington, northern  California  and  parts  of  Utah.  In  these 
regions  it  is  the  most  destructive  plant  that  grows.  It 
is  injurious  to  all  stock,  but  more  especially  sheep.  In 
the  early  spring  its  leaves  are  so  much  like  the  leaves 
of  the  young  grasses  that  stock  presumably  is  unable 
to  recognize  it.  The  poisonous  matter  seems  to  be  as 
great  in  the  leaves  as  in  the  roots,  hence  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  guard  against  its  being  eaten  excepting 
by  herding  stock  away  from  well-known  infested  areas. 


Original  water  color  from   collection   i 
Smithsonian   Institution   by  Walpole 


DEATH   CAM  AS   (Zygadenus  venenosus) 


A HOE W &  CD 


Original  water  color  from 

collection   in  Smithsonian 

Institution   by  Walpole 


WATER  HEMLOCK  (dcuta  varans') 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  267 

The  great  distribution  of  the  plant  makes  this  difficult, 
although  the  sheepmen  knowing  the  more  dangerous 
places  can  protect  themselves  to  certain  extent. 

The  plant  grows  abundantly  in  the  shallow  foothill 
valleys  and  in  the  mountains,  although  it  does  not 
flourish  in  the  wet,  swampy  places.  It  is  often  called 
"wild  onion,"  and  at  certain  periods  of  its  growth  re- 
sembles a  young  onion  plant.  The  flower  is  a  greenish- 
yellow.  There  is  a  variety  of  the  camas  known  as 
swamp  camas  (Zygadenus  elegans),  which  grows  ex- 
clusively in  swampy  places.  It  is  much  coarser  in 
growth  and  leaf  than  the  death  camas,  but  appears  to 
have  all  the  poisonous  properties  of  the  other  plant. 
Fortunately  it  is  riot  so  widely  distributed  and,  owing 
to  its  coarse  growth,  is  not  eaten  with  the  other  grasses, 
as  is  the  death  camas. 

Water  Hemlock  (Cicuta  occidentalis,  C.  maculata. — 
This  plant  sometimes  is  called  cowbane  or  wild  parsnip. 
It  is  a  smooth  perennial  from  two  to  five  feet  in  height, 
with  several  slender  tapering  roots  in  a  cluster  at  the 
base  of  the  main  stem.  The  similarity  of  the  roots  to 
the  ordinary  parsnip  accounts  for  the  term  "wild  par- 
snip." The  leaves  are  doubly  compounded  with  narrow 
separate  leaflets  two  to  three  inches  in  length.  The 
flowers  grow  in  clusters  at  the  ends  of  the  stem  and  are 
of  a  dull  greenish  white  color.  The  flowers  have  an 
umbrella-like  appearance  similar  in  shape  to  the  umbrella 
tree  of  the  Southwest.  The  stems  are  hollow  and 
whistles  made  from  them  have  poisoned  children. 

The  plant  grows  along  the  banks  of  streams  and  ponds 
and  in  wet  vegas  and  marshes.  It  is  found  all  over  the 
West  and  is  injurious  to  all  stock  and  also  to  man.  It 
is  deadly  in  its  action,  and  the  operation  of  the  poison 


^03  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

is  so  rapid  that  full-grown  cattle  have  been  known  to 
die  from  its  effects  within  half  an  hour  after  eating  it. 
The  plant  is  easily  recognized.  It  is  not  so  common  but 
that  it  can  be  eliminated  from  a  range  by  a  little  syste- 
matic work  in  cutting  or  grubbing  up  the  roots  with  a 
hoe  or  other  suitable  tool. 

Aconite  (Aconitum  columbianum). — Known  locally  as 
monks  hood  or  wolfbane,  this  pretty  flowering  plant  is 
found  all  over  the  western  stock  ranges,  and  has  been 
held  responsible  for  many  deaths  among  stock.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  these  losses  were  due  to  larkspur, 
which  is  a  near  relative  of  aconite.  It  has  the  same  blue 
flower  of  the  larkspur  and  the  same  poisonous  qualities, 
but  as  it  grows  in  rough  inaccessible  places,  and  is  not 
largely  distributed,  the  losses  from  it  are  doubtless  small. 

Scrub  Oak  (Quercus  gambelii  Q.  undulata). — Known 
also  as  "shin  oak."  This  is  the  scrub  oak  of  the  western 
ranges,  especially  in  the  Southwest,  where  it  forms  as  on 
the  Texas  staked  plains  great  areas  called  "shinneries." 
In  the  higher  foothills  it  grows  to  a  considerable  height 
in  dense  thickets,  there  known  as  scrub  oak.  It  is  an 
important  article  of  forage  for  all  kinds  of  stock,  espe- 
cially cattle  at  certain  times  in  the  spring.  When  there 
is  plenty  of  other  feed  and  the  buds  and  young  leaves  are 
eaten  in  connection  with  other  feed,  no  injurious  effects 
are  observed,  but  when  feed  is  scarce  and  cattle  browse 
almost  exclusively  on  the  oak,  serious  losses  ensue.  In 
New  Mexico,  Colorado,  and  parts  of  Arizona  the  losses 
from  oak-poisoning  are  heavy  among  cattle  in  cold  back- 
ward springs,  when  other  feed  is  scarce. 

The  symptoms  of  oak  poisoning  are  high  fever;  the 
lips  and  noses  of  the  animals  become  scabby  and  sore; 
the  flesh  cracks;  the  eyes  are  deep-set;  the  hair  all  turns 


Original  water  color  from  collection  in 
Smithsonian  Institution  by  Walpole 


AHOENaCO  BALTIMORE 


ACONITE   (Acomtum  columbianum) 
MONK'S   HOOD 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  269 

the  wrong  way.  The  breath  comes  with  difficulty  and  in 
many  respects  the  appearance  is  similar  to  loco  poisoning. 
Post  mortems  show  the  stomachs  to  be  very  badly  com- 
pacted, the  contents  appearing  dry  and  burned. 

The  only  known  remedy  is  liberal  doses  of  linseed  oil 
given  as  a  drench  and  injected.  One  quart  for  a  drench 
if  given  early  enough  will  bring  good  results,  but  if  the 
case  is  not  taken  in  hand  promptly,  nothing  seems  to 
do  any  good.  It  is  possible  that  the  use  of  a  perman- 
ganate of  potash  drench  in  such  cases  would  give  excel- 
lent results,  although  it  has  never  been  tried  to  my 
knowledge.  When  cattle  begin  to  die  of  this  trouble  the 
best  remedy  is  immediately  to  remove  them  to  some 
range  where  the  oak  is  not  found. 

Pingue  or  Rubber  Weed  (Hymenoxys  floribunda). — 
In  northern  New  Mexico  and  southern  Colorado  in  the 
upper  Rio  Grande  region  there  has  been  for  several  years 
past  more  or  less  loss  from  some  disease  known  locally 
among  the  sheepmen  as  "pingue,"  from  the  Spanish 
name  of  the  plant  which  is  presumed  to  be  responsible 
for  the  trouble.  The  rubber  weed  is  a  small  plant,  bear- 
ing a  bright  yellow  flower  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  growing  in  the  semi-desert  ranges.  Under 
commercial  treatment  it  produces  small  quantities  of  a 
rather  low  grade  of  crude  rubber.  The  story  goes  that 
the  way  the  rubber  in  the  plant  was  first  discovered  was 
due  to  the  death  of  a  ram  whose  stomach  was  opened  in 
an  effort  to  discover  the  cause  of  death.  In  the  animal's 
stomach  was  found  a  mass  that  the  investigators  reported 
to  be  almost  pure  rubber.  The  sheep  had  been  eating 
the  bush  or  shrub,  and  the  deductions  were  that  the 
rubber  came  from  the  shrub  and  the  animal  died  from 
the  effects  of  the  mass  of  rubber  in  its  stomach. 


270  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

The  matter  is  now  undergoing  a  careful  investigation 
at  the  hands  of  competent  men,  with  a  view  to  determin- 
ing just  what  causes  the  trouble  known  as  pingue,  and 
whether  or  not  it  is  due  to  the  supposed  presence  of  rub- 
ber. There  is  great  doubt  as  to  the  entire  question  apart 
from  the  fact  that  many  sheep  die  of  the  disease  known 
as  pingue.  But  that  it  is  due  to  the  rubber  in  the  plant 
is  believed  at  present  to  be  very  doubtful. 

The  pingue  plant  may  be  easily  recognized  in  the 
spring  by  its  black  stems  with  small  white  seed  heads 
at  the  ends.  The  green  leaves  show  close  down  to  the 
ground  at  the  roots  of  the  tufts  and  the  whole  area  cov- 
ered by  the  plants  resembles  a  burned-over  spot,  on  the 
range. 

For  symptoms  and  remedies  for  pingue  see  page  280. 

Ergot  (Claviceps  purpurea). — This  is  a  parasitic  fun- 
gus which  is  found  principally  upon  the  heads  of  wild 
rye  (Elymus  condensatus)  and  bluestem  grass  (Agropy- 
ron  Smithii).  These  two  plants  are  found  practically 
all  over  the  western  range  country.  The  fungus  which 
does  the  injury  to  animals  is  a  small  black  spur-like 
growth  between  a  quarter  and  a  half  inch  in  length  which 
is  attached  to  the  seed  hdads  of  these  grasses.  The  fun- 
gus growth  contains  the  ergot  and  is  eaten  with  the 
grass.  Many  stockmen  believe  the  fungus  to  be  part  of 
the  seed  head  of  the  plants.  The  loss  of  stock  from  eat- 
ing the  growing  plants  appears  to  be  slight,  the  injurious 
effects  being  mostly  confined  to  hay-feeding,  when  it  is 
eaten  with  the  seed  heads  and  not  noticed  by  the 
animals. 

The  losses  are  mainly  confined  to  horses,  although 
cases  of  death  in  both  cattle  and  sheep  have  been  known. 
Ergot-poisoning  is  deadly  in  its  effects,  acts  quickly  and 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  271 

owing  to  the  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  throat, 
making  swallowing  extremely  hard,  it  is  generally  diffi- 
cult to  administer  remedies. 

Sneeze  Weed  (Helenium  montanum  H.  autumnale). 
— A  smooth  branching  perennial,  growing  from  eight 
inches  to  three  feet  high,  sneeze  weed  has  long  lance- 
shaped  leaves,  with  yellow  flowers,  and  is  generally 
classed  by  stockman  as  a  species  of  sunflower.  It  is  only 
dangerous  where  other  feed  is  not  available,  hence  is 
seldom  eaten  by  animals  unless  they  are  extremely  hun- 
gry. So  far  as  is  known,  no  domestic  animals  excepting 
sheep  have  ever  been  seriously  affected  by  sneeze  weed. 
The  plant  is  found  all  over  the  West,  mainly  in  the 
higher  mountain  regions.  Old  abandoned  fields  and 
pastures  heavily  overgrazed  are  generally  full  of  it — in 
some  places  to  the  complete  exclusion  of  all  other  kinds 
of  plants. 

The  water  contained  in  stock-tanks  and  reservoirs 
which  have  large  amounts  of  sneeze  weed  in  their  vicin- 
ity has  been  known  to  poison  sheep,  and  in  two  instances 
a  number  of  men  camped  on  small  tanks  or  ponds  of 
rain  water  otherwise  pure  but  covered  by  the  pollen 
from  this  plant  were  all  made  dangerously  sick  from 
using  the  water. 

Choke  Cherry  (Prunus  demissa). — This  is  the  ordinary 
choke  cherry  of  the  West.  It  is  not  a  dangerous  plant, 
excepting  when  animals  like  sheep  are  driven  for  long 
distances  over  a  range  with  little  forage  on  it,  and 
then  reach  thickets  of  the  cherry.  The  hungry  animals 
eagerly  browse  on  the  leaves  and  twigs  which,  taken 
into  the  empty  stomach,  develop  prussic  acid  in  sufficient 
amounts  to  kill  them. 

Heavy   losses   of   sheep   have   occurred   in   Utah   and 


272  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

other  western  states  in  which  post  mortems  proved 
beyond  all  reasonable  doubt  that  the  deaths  were  caused 
by  eating  the  leaves  of  the  choke  cherry  bushes  through 
which  the  trail-hungry  sheep  were  driven.  Sheep  in  this 
condition  should  never  be  driven  through  such  thickets, 
if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it. 

Sleepy  Grass  (Stipa  vaseyi). — This  is  a  plant  peculiar 
to  the  high  mountains  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  In 
appearance  it  is  not  unlike  wild  rye,  growing  to  a  height 
of  from  three  to  four  feet.  Local  stock  will  not  touch 
it,  except  when  but  a  few  inches  high,  and  the  only  ani- 
mals affected  are  those  driven  through  the  ranges  and 
unfamiliar  to  the  country.  There  are  no  records  of 
cattle  or  sheep  being  affected  by  it,  horses  being  the 
only  stock  on  which  any  observations  have  been  made. 

I  once  saw  a  six-horse  team  belonging  to  a  party  trav- 
eling through  the  country  turned  out  to  graze  near  a 
large  patch  of  this  grass.  The  horses  were  very  hungry, 
and  the  grass  looked  good  to  them.  When  the  teamster 
tried  to  hitch  up  his  animals  some  of  them  began  to 
fall  asleep  as  they  stood  in  the  harness.  Their  heads 
would  drop  lower  and  lower  and  sometimes  the  animals 
would  sink  to  the  grouiid,  there  to  sleep  soundly.  If 
touched  sharply  they  would  jump  all  over,  as  if  awakened 
from  a  dream,  but  drop  off  to  sleep  again  at  once,  if 
left  alone.  This  sleepiness  disappears  in  a  few  hours, 
and  to  all  outward  appearances  the  animals  are  none 
the  worse  for  the  experience. 

Foxtail  (Hordeum)  and  Squirrel  Tail  Grass. — The  in- 
jurious effects  of  these  grasses  are  entirely  mechanical 
in  their  nature.  The  sharp  awns  or  spikes  of  the 
plants  work  their  way  into  the  inner  lining  of  the  ani- 
mal's lips  and  mouth,  also  affecting  the  tongue.  They 


POISONOUS  PLANTS  273 

frequently  work  into  the  eyes  and  nostrils,  forming 
festering  spots  wherever  they  enter.  Death  often  en- 
sues, owing  to  the  injury  to  the  tongue  and  mouth, 
preventing  the  animals  from  eating.  In  sheep  the 
sharp  awns  also  work  into  the  wool  and  often  into 
the  hides,  sometimes  even  causing  death. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES. 

In  order  to  make  definite  comparisons  between  the 
symptoms  of  various  plant  poisonings  it  has  been 
deemed  best  to  locate  them  all  in  one  place.  In  this 
way  it  is  believed  the  particular  case  may  be  more 
readily  discovered.  A  general  discussion  of  the  various 
remedies  will  be  found  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter, 
page  246. 

Bloat. — General  symptoms :  huge  swelling  on  the  left 
side  of  the  paunch  below  the  hip  bone;  animal  groans 
and  grunts  as  if  in  pain;  labored  breathing;  animal  seeks 
place  like  an  irrigating  ditch  where  it  can  stand  with 
forefeet  up-hill,  thus  throwing  the  paunch  back  from 
the  lungs  and  throat. 

Remedies:  In  first  stages  large  doses  of  common  bak- 
ing soda  given  as  a  dre,nch  may  give  relief.  Shove  a 
section  of  a  garden  hose  down  the  throat;  this  allows 
more  or  less  of  the  gas  to  escape.  Tie  a  short  piece  of 
hoe  or  pitchfork  handle  in  the  mouth  like  a  bit;  this 
keeps  the  mouth  wide  open  and  allows  gas  to  escape. 
Run  the  animal  around  a  field  for  twenty  minutes  at 
good  speed;  this  works  the  gas  off  the  stomach.  Per- 
form the  operation  known  as  "paunching"  or  "rumen- 
otomy."  To  do  this  stick  a  trocar  or  long  knife  blade 
into  the  stomach  about  five  inches  below  the  left  hip 
bone  and  the  same  distance  back  from  the  last  small 

274 


SYMPTOMS   AND   REMEDIES  275 

rib.  There  is  no  danger  at  all  in  this  operation  and  it 
should  be  done  promptly  on  account  of  the  rapid  pro- 
gress of  trouble.  Sometimes  the  hole  may  be  opened 
to  about  four  or  five  inches  in  length  and  a  portion  of 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  pulled  out  by  hand.  This, 
however,  is  seldom  necessary,  as,  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  being  removed,  the  ordinary  operation  of  the 
stomach  will  soon  clear  out  the  mass  of  green  feed 
to  which  the  trouble  is  due. 

Loco. — The  following  summary  of  the  remedies  covers 
the  entire  question  of  remedies.  It  is  taken  from  Bul- 
letin No.  112  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry — "Loco 
Weed  of  the  Plains"— by  Prof.  C.  D.  Marsh : 

1.  Some  locoed  animals  will  recover  if  taken  from 
the  weed  and  fed  well  without  any  treatment. 

2.  Most  locoed  animals  will  recover  if  they  are  taken 
from  loco,  fed  carefully  and  treated  on  the  lines  indi- 
cated by  our  experiments. 

3.  In  all  cases  care  should  be  taken  to  relieve  con- 
stipation, either  through  the  character  of  the  food  or 
by  use  of  magnesium  sulphate. 

4.  Horses   are   best   treated   with    Fowler's   solution 
in   daily   doses   of   15   cubic   centimeters    continued   for 
at  least  a  month. 

5.  Cattle  are  best  treated  with  daily  doses  of  strych- 
nine, not  exceeding  three-twentieths  of  a  grain,  given 
hypodermically  and  continued  for  one  or  two  months. 
It  is  especially  important  that  the  dose  should  be  small, 
as  locoed  animals  are  very  susceptible  to  the  bad  effects 
of  over-dosing. 

This  then  should  be  borne  in  mind :     Use   Fowler's 

solution  of  arsenic  for  horses,  and  strychnine  for  cattle. 

To  those  who  desire  to  study  the  matter  more  care- 


276  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

fully  the  bulletin  mentioned  would  be  extremely  inter- 
esting as  giving  the  experience  of  practical  experts  in 
handling  this  trouble. 

Of  course  to  the  open-range  stockman,  apart  from 
saving  his  saddle  horses,  it  looks  as  if  there  was  at 
present  no  help  for  him.  To  gather  and  dose  large 
numbers  of  locoed  range  stock  for  two  or  three  months 
would  be  too  expensive  and  in  most  cases,  owing  to 
the  nature  of  the  animals,  wholly  out  of  the  question. 
The  only  solution  of  their  troubles  is  some  sort  of  Gov- 
ernment control  whereby  they  may  be  guaranteed  a 
certain  range,  exclusively,  for  a  period  of  years.  When 
this  is  done  each  man  can  easily  afford  to  undertake 
to  clean  out  the  loco  from  his  own  range  and  thus  be 
freed  from  the  losses  caused  by  the  plant. 

Larkspurs. — Symptoms  :  Similar  to  aconite  poisoning. 
The  animal  walks  with  a  stiff,  awkward,  straddling  gait, 
often  walking  backward,  and  falling  down  repeatedly; 
is  very  stiff  and  clumsy  and  finally,  in  the  extreme 
stages,  falls  to  the  ground  in  violent  spasms,  with  con- 
vulsive kicking. 

Remedies :  Hurrying  or  moving  the  animals  increases 
the  effect  of  the  poison,  and  they  should  not  be  disturbed, 
except  that  the  head  may  be  placed  higher  than  the  body, 
which  prevents  choking. 

A  strong  drench  to  move  the  bowels  will  often  save 
an  animal.  Frequently  bloating  accompanies  the  trou- 
ble, which  is  relieved  by  paunching  (page  254),  in  fact 
the'  writer  believes  bloat  causes  death  in  this  trouble  as 
often  as  the  poison  itself. 

Dr.  Marsh*  who  has  studied  this  plant  carefully,  rec- 

*Farmers'   bulletin  No.   531   Dept.  Agriculture. 


SYMPTOMS   AND   REMEDIES  277 

ommends   this   remedy   for   animals   up   to   600  pounds 
weight ;  over  that,  double  the  dose : 

Physostigmin    salicylate    1   grain 

Pilocarpin    hydroclorid    2    grains 

Strychnin  sulphate   %    grain 

These  can  be  found  in  any  drug  store.,     For  either 

.  /*•**  te>    L^«     CX^CA^S,  ^  J^^JuU^^ 

dose  mix  with  8  ounces  water.  JUse  twe  ordinary  metal 

hypodermic  syringe. 

Lupines. — Symptoms:  Great  frenzy  and  mental  ex- 
citement. Animals,  especially  sheep,  will  run  about  but- 
ting into  anything  they  touch,  as  well  as  one  another. 
This  is  followed  by  spasms  and  falling-fits,  similar  to 
those  seen  in  strychnine  poisoning.  Death  comes  very 
soon — often  within  an  hour.  One  of  the  principal  symp- 
toms is  the  increased  amount  and  bloody  appearance  of 
the  discharge  from  the  kidneys. 

The  only  known  remedy  that  can  be  called  at  all  use- 
ful is  the  permanganate  of  potash  drench. 

Camas. — The  symptoms  of  camas-poisoning  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  noticed  in  cases  of  strychnine-poisoning. 
There  is  no  wild  frenzy  of  the  afflicted  animals  but 
they  are  very  restless  and  uneasy,  with  rapid  breath- 
ing, slobbering  and  frothing  with  greatly  increased 
amounts  of  saliva  in  their  mouths.  Regurgitation  is 
frequent  through  the  mouth  and  nostrils. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  death  follows  very  quickly, 
and  remedial  measures  must  be  taken  as  soon  as  the 
symptoms  appear,  if  the  animals  are  to  be  saved.  So  far 
as  is  known  the  only  remedy  is  in  the  use  of  the  perman- 
ganate of  potash  drench. 

Water  Hemlock. — Animals  poisoned  by  this  plant  are 
subject  to  most  severe  pain.  There  is  great  cerebral 
frenzy  with  hard,  irregular  breathing,  and  violent  mus- 


278  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

cular  spasms.  The  animal  will  run  wildly  in  any  direc- 
tion in  which  it  gets  started,  never  going  far,  owing 
probably  to  the  severity  of  the  pains.  Death  conies 
quickly,  sometimes  in  fifteen  minutes  after  eating  the 
plant.  Any  efforts  toward  saving  the  animal  must 
therefore  be  immediate. 

If  available  give  hypodermic  injections  of  morphine 
in  one-fourth  grain  doses,  or  one-half  ounce  chloral  hy- 
drate divided  into  three  fifteen-minute  doses.  Also  give 
the  permanganate  of  potash  drench.  Where  medicines 
are  not  available,  and  this  is  usually  the  case  in  this 
trouble,  open  the  stomach  of  cattle  as  for  bloat,  and 
with  the  hands  pull  out  the  contents.  This  simply  re- 
moves the  poisonous  matter  from  the  stomach  and  if 
done  soon  enough  may  save  the  animal.  After  this  has 
been  done,  give  injections  of  melted  lard,  oil  or  even 
warm  water,  to  move  the  bowels  and  carry  off  any  re- 
maining poisonous  material. 

Opening  the  stomach  is  not  a  serious  matter,  and 
this  rough  and  ready  surgery  may  save  some  valuable 
milk  cow  which  would  otherwise  be  lost.  A  few  stitches 
in  the  cut  to  draw  the  sides  together  and  a  little  tar  or 
grease  on  the  wound  to  keep  flies  away  are  all  that 
need  be  done.  It  is  remarkable  how  quickly  an  animal 
thus  treated  will  recover  and  go  to  grazing  again  as 
if  nothing  unusual  had  happened. 

Oaks. — Symptoms :  The  animals  are  weak  and  stand 
in  one  spot  for  hours,  unless  forced  to  move.  In  appear- 
ance they  resemble  locoed  animals;  the  sunken  eyes, 
grinding  teeth  and  hair  all  set  the  wrong  way  being 
very  like  the  conditions  in  loco.  There  is  high  fever  with 
hard,  labored  breathing.  The  skin  on  the  lips  and  nose 
is  cracked  and  blistered  from  the  fever. 


SYMPTOMS   AND   REMEDIES  279 

Post  mortems  show  the  contents  of  the  stomach  to 
be  very  dark,  dry  and  impacted,  due  to  the  tannin  in 
the  oak.  The  gall  sack  is  greatly  distended  with  a 
clear  syrupy  liquor  and  the  urine  is  generally  quite 
bloody. 

Remedies  :  The  only  remedy  I  have  seen  tried  is 
the  use  of  large  drenches  and  injections  of  oil,  linseed 
being  usually  the  most  available.  Melted  lard  will  prob- 
ably bring  equally  good  results.  If  available  the  drench 
of  permanganate  of  potash  might  be  used  to  advantage, 
although  the  progress  of  this  disease  is  so  slow  that  in 
all  probability  the  poisonous  matter  is  too  thoroughly 
incorporated  into  the  system  to  make  its  use  effective. 

The  trouble  does  not  begin  to  show  itself  until  the 
animals  have  eaten  a  large  amount  of  the  oak  leaves,  and 
they  generally  linger  in  their  misery  for  ten  days  be- 
fore dying. 

Ergot.  —  Symptoms  :  Paralysis  beginning  at  the  throat 
and  mouth  ;  the  action  of  the  animal  is  similar  to  cases 
of  strychnine-poisoning.  The  victim  is  unable  to  use  its 
limbs,  staggers  and  falls  about;  appears  very  tired  and 
disinclined  to  work.  Horses  sweat  profusely  about  the 
neck  and  head.  The  paralysis,  which  starts  with  the 
mouth  and  tongue,  gradually  extends  to  the  entire 
body.  Owing  to  this  paralysis  the  animal  is  unable  to 
swallow,  hence  remedies  are  very  hard  to  give,  except- 
ing as  injections.  There  is  no  excitement  or  hard  breath- 
ing, the  respiration  being  slow  and  deep,  as  if  in  a 


Remedies  :  Any  stimulant,  such  as  alcohol,  ammonia 
or  strychnine,  may  be  used.  The  action  of  this  poison 
is  rapid  and  deadly,  and  any  efforts  to  save  the  victim 
must  be  prompt.  Permanganate  of  potash  should  be 


280  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

tried,  although  no  cases  are  known  to  the  writer  where 
it  has  been  used. 

Sneeze  Weed. — Symptoms :  Continual  sneezing  and 
coughing.  This  appears  to  bring  about  vomiting,  which 
becomes  serious,  frequently  ending  in  death.  No  rem- 
edies are  known.  A  drench  of  a  quart  of  melted  lard  or 
any  oil  may  be  useful.  The  most  important  thing  is 
immediately  to  remove  the  animals  from  the  range 
where  the  sneeze  weed  is  found. 

Choke  Cherries. — Symptoms :  Severe  pains  with  acute 
frenzy  and  early  death.  The  sickness  is  due  to  prus- 
sic  acid  contained  in  the  leaves;  the  action  is  rapid  and 
there  is  little  time  in  which  to  administer  remedies.  A 
permanganate  of  potash  drench  should  be  used,  together 
with  an  injection  or  drench  of  oils  to  assist  in  carry- 
ing off  the  matter  from  the  stomach. 

Pingue. — The  symptoms  of  this  poison  are  not  very 
well  known  at  present.  The  disease  is  confined  en- 
tirely to  sheep.  The  animals  appear  drowsy  and  with 
no  desire  to  eat.  They  finally  lie  down  and  unless 
forced  to  rise  will  seldom  get  up  again.  The  progress 
of  the  disease  is  rapid,  a/id  losses  are  heavy.  The  only 
remedy  known  at  present  is  the  use  of  a  drench  of  hot 
strong  brine,  given  every  hour  until  the  animals  re- 
cover. 

Kafir  Corn  and  Sorghum. — Cattle  and  sheep  turned 
into  fields  of  Kafir  or  sorghum  often  die  very  suddenly. 
This  is  due  to  the  presence  of  prussic  acid,  which  ap- 
pears to  develop  in  these  plants  whenever  their  growth 
is  checked  in  its  early  stages  by  either  frost  or  un- 
usual drouth  conditions.  Thus  the.  young  growth  of 
both  of  these  plants  is  a  very  dangerous  feed ;  and  stock 


SYMPTOMS   AND   REMEDIES  281 

should  never  be  turned  upon  it  when  it  has  been  frosted 
or  its  growth  checked  by  dry  weather. 

The  greatest  losses  usually  follow  the  turning  of  stock 
into  fields  in  the  fall,  from  which  the  crop  has  been 
harvested.  The  young  growth  that  always  springs  up 
from  the  stubble  is  exceedingly  dangerous  at  such  a 
time,  and  what  feed  there  is  in  the  field  may  better  be 
wasted  than  to  risk  the  losses  that  are  sure  to  follow. 
Hogs,  however,  seem  to  be  perfectly  immune  to  this 
poison  and  may  use  such  feed  without  danger. 

There  is  no  known  absolute  remedy  for  prussic  acid 
poisoning,  unless  it  be  the  permanganate  of  potash 
drench,  and  generally  the  animals  are  dead  before  any- 
thing could  be  done,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  and 
active  poisons  known. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
DISEASES  OF  LIVE  STOCK. 

While  it  is  impossible  within  the  limits  of  a  short 
article  to  cover  all  the  diseases  to  which  livestock  is 
heir,  there  are  several  which  affect  domestic  animals 
throughout  the  West.  These  might  be  called  "standard 
diseases"  because  of  their  general  prevalence.  Some  of 
the  diseases  from  which  stock  suffer  are  caused  by  eat- 
ing poisonous  plants,  and  have  been  considered  else- 
where in  this  work.  Not  only  should  the  Western  man 
be  able  to  recognize  the  common  diseases  that  affect 
his  stock,  but  he  should  also  be  able  to  administer  or 
suggest  the  necessary  simple  remedy. 

Where  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  available,  he  should 
be  called.  There  was  a  day  when  the  village  "horse 
doctor"  generally  was  a  "quack,"  with  little  or  no  scien- 
tific or  professional  knowledge  of  the  work  which  he 
undertook  to  do;  but  the  veterinarian  of  today  is  as 
much  a  professional  man  in  every  sense  of  the  word  as 
is  any  doctor  of  medicine.  A  graduate  from  any  of 
the  well-known  veterinary  colleges  is  fully  as  competent 
to  take  care  of  the  health  of  dumb  animals  as  the  doc- 
tor is  to  care  for  a  family. 

Many  a  valuable  horse  or  cow  has  been  lost  by  its 
owner  following  the  advice  of  every  one  who  came 
along,  thus  burdening  the  poor  animal's  stomach  with 
a  variety  of  remedies,  all  more  or  less  antagonistic  to 


DISEASES    OF    LIVE    STOCK  283 

one  another.  Who  has  not  seen  a  cow  dosed  with  soda 
by  the  advice  of  one  man,  and  ten  minutes  later,  on 
the  advice  of  some  one  else,  given  a  quart  or  two  of 
vinegar — one  an  alkali  and  the  other  an  acid?  Better 
by  far  no  medicines  at  all,  excepting  salts  or  oil  to  move 
the  bowels — an  excellent  measure  in  all  cases  of  sick- 
ness. 

Do  not  be  coaxed  by  the  village  sage  into  having 
the  "eye"  or  "blind"  teeth  of  a  young  horse  knocked  out 
on  the  theory  that  they  cause  sore  eyes  and  blindness. 
No  graduate  veterinarian  will  recommend  such  pro- 
cedures or  admit  that  they  have  the  least  connection 
with  the  eye  trouble.  Do  not  let  the  same  wise  man 
talk  you  into  taking  a  red-hot  iron  and  burning  out 
a.  horse's  upper  gums  in  the  belief  that  he  has  "lamp- 
ers"  and  that  it  is  going  to  cure  it,  for  it  will  not.  Do 
not  decide  that  your  horse  is  suffering  from  "bots," 
because  there  is  really  no  such  disease.  In  almost  every 
healthy  horse  the  larvae  of  the  bot  fly  (Gastrophilus 
equi)  will  be  found  in  the  intestines  where,  excepting  in 
extreme  cases,  they  apparently  do  no  great  injury. 

Because  a  cow  will  not  eat,  fails  to  chew  the  cud 
(ruminate)  and  seems  sick,  do  not  let  the  village  "know- 
it-all"  make  you  believe  she  has  "lost  her  cud."  Do 
not  shove  down  her  throat  with  a  pitchfork  handle  a 
wad  composed  of  a  slice  of  salt  pork  as  large  as  your 
hand  with  some  pieces  of  laundry  soap  wrapped  inside 
it,  in  the  fond  hope  that  it  will  cure  her  by  replacing  the 
cud  which  the  aforesaid  "know-it-all"  assures  you  she 
has  lost.  The  cow  is  a  ruminant,  that  is,  she  eats  a 
lot  of  feed,  stores  it  up  in  her  first  stomach  tempo- 
rarily, then  goes  off  to  a  comfortable  spot,  regurgitates 
(literally  vomits)  it  back  into  her  mouth  and  proceeds 


284  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

to  chew  it  into  shape  to  be  digested.  When  she  has 
fully  masticated  one  lot  it  is  swallowed  and  goes  into  the 
second  stomach  while,  if  she  is  undisturbed,  she  raises 
another  cud  and  repeats  the  process.  This  is  chewing 
her  cud.  If  a  cow  fails  to  chew  her  cud  she  is  simply 
out  of  sorts,  her  digestive  apparatus  is  wrong  some- 
where, and  the  only  remedy  is  something  that  will 
cure  the  indigestion. 

As  in  the  human,  loosen  up  the  bowels  with  a  dose 
of  salts  or  oil,  give  her  an  injection  of  warm,  soapy 
water,  change  her  feed,  give  nature  a  chance  to  effect 
a  cure  and  let  her  alone  as  much  as  possible.  Bots,  blind 
teeth,  burning  for  lampas,  hollow  horn,  wolf  tail  and 
several  other  old-fashioned  stock  diseases  have  given 
way  before  modern  scientific  investigations  and  are 
not  now  part  and  parcel  of  the  veterinarian's  diseases. 

There  are  two  books  published  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  "The  Diseases  of  Cattle" 
and  "The  Diseases  of  Horses,"  which  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  every  stockman.  They  may  be  secured  through 
Congressmen.  In  these  two  volumes  the  various  diseases 
from  which  horses  and  cattle  suffer  are  most  admirably 
treated  and  the  remedies'  are  those  which  every  stock- 
owner  should  have  on  hand,  ready  for  emergencies.  The 
easiest  manner  of  administering  medicines  to  animals  is 
of  course  through  the  medium  of  feed. 

Bran,  corn  chop,  or  other  soft  feeds  may  be  used  if 
the  medicines  are  not  injurious  to  the  linings  of  the 
throat  or  mouth  and  have  no  disagreeable  taste.  This 
is  the  most  satisfactory  method.  Generally,  however, 
a  sick  animal  is  one  that  is  not  eating,  hence  the  com- 
monest method  is  by  means  of  drenches  through  the 
mouth  or  injections  through  the  rectum.  A  beer  bottle 


DISEASES    OF    LIVE    STOCK  285 

is  the  most  available  vehicle  for  the  purpose,  and  care 
must  be  used  not  to  allow  the  neck  of  the  bottle  to 
get  between  the  grinding  teeth  of  the  animal,  lest  the 
bottle  be  broken  and  the  animal  injured  by  glass. 

If  a  cow  which  is  being  treated  coughs,  the  head 
must  be  lowered  at  once,  lest  the  animal  choke  or  some 
of  the  liquor  be  forced  down  the  windpipe  into  the 
lungs,  causing  serious  injury  and  possibly  pneumonia. 
Raise  the  animal's  head  gently  to  an  angle  of  about  45 
degrees,  push  the  bottle  neck  into  the  right  side  of  the 
mouth  so  that  it  rests  on  the  middle  of  the  tongue  and, 
allow  the  contents  slowly  to  run  out.  Usually  between 
a  pint  and  a  quart  of  fluid  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  carry 
the  medicines  into  the  animal's  stomach.  In  impaction 
of  the  stomach,  however,  the  dose  may  be  as  much  as  a 
gallon  or  even  more. 

See  that  all  crystals  are  completely  dissolved  in  the 
liquor  before  giving  it,  so  that  they  may  be  carried  into 
the  stomach  and  not  be  left  in  the  mouth.  If  it  is  de- 
sirable to  administer  through  the  bowels  it  may  be 
done  with  a  syringe  or  by  means  of  a  piece  of  common 
rubber  hose  four  or  five  feet  long.  Oil  or  soap 
the  hose  and  push  it  carefully  into  the  rectum,  leaving 
a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  outside.  Elevate  this  and  use 
a  tin  funnel  through  which  the  medicine  may  be  poured 
and  it  will  find  its  way  by  gravity  into  the  bowels. 

Do  not  give  liquid  medicines  through  the  nostrils. 
Many  a  valuable  animal  has  been  killed  by  this  prac- 
tice. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  DISEASES  OF  CATTLE. 

There  are  but  three  diseases  among  western  range 
cattle  which  can  be  considered  general:  Big  jaw  (acti- 
nomycosis),  bloating  (tympanites)  and  black-leg.  Bloat- 
ing has  been  fully  considered  under  the  head  of  poison- 
ous plants.  Big  jaw,  also  called  lumpy  jaw  and  wooden 
tongue,  is  an  infectious  disease  found  generally  all  over 
the  West.  It  is  a  chronic  disease  and  due  to  the  forma- 
tion and  action  of  a  fungus  growth.  It  is  not  carried 
from  one  animal  to  another  by  mere  contact  but  must 
be  taken  into  the  system  through  some  abrasion  of  the 
skin  in  the  lining  of  the  mouth  or  decayed  teeth.  The 
fungus  is  found  on  grasses  and  the  sharp  awns  of  bar- 
ley and  other  grains.  These  work  into  the  membrane  of 
the  mouth,  the  tongue  and  gums  of  cattle. 

In  certain  stages  of  the  disease  animals  with  huge, 
running  sores  on  their  ja,ws  drink  from  troughs,  pools 
and  tanks  into  which  the  matter  from  the  sores  drops, 
and  it  is  an  easy  matter  for  the  fungus  which  carries 
the  trouble  to  find  its  way  into  the  system  of  a  healthy 
animal.  It  is  not  very  probable  that  the  disease  is 
often  spread  by  this  means.  While  the  tumors  may  ap- 
pear on  various  parts  of  the  animal,  it  is  generally  on 
the  lower  jaw  bones  that  they  are  found.  The  trouble 
begins  with  a  small  swelling  which  gradually  grows 
until  it  assumes  considerable  size,  finally  breaking  out 
with  a  running  sore  which  spreads  and  grows  until  the 


THE    DISEASES    OF    CATTLE 


287 


entire  jaw  is  frequently  covered.  It  also  works  back 
into  the  inner  part  of  the  jaw,  attacking  the  bone  itself 
as  well  as  the  tongue,  when  it  is  called  "wooden  tongue." 

An  animal  in  an  advanced  stage  of  the  disease  will 
show  a  peculiar  honeycombed  appearance  of  the  jaw 
bones  when  the  flesh  is  opened  to  the  bone.  In  a  few 
cases  animals  affected  with  this  disease  recover  without 
treatment  and  probably  about  75  per  cent  of  the  afflicted 
can  be  cured  if  properly  treated.  The  cause,  progress 
and  peculiarities  of  this  disease  are  little  known  to  veter- 
inarians, and  there  is  much  ignorance  as  to  the  facts 
in  regard  to  it. 

The  most  common  method  of  treating  big  jaw  has  been 
to  cut  away  tumors  where  this  is  possible,  even  to 
scraping  the  diseased  bones.  This,  however,  is  sel- 
dom a  permanent  cure  and  the  disease  soon  reappears. 
Recently  veterinarians  have  discovered  that  a  treatment 
of  iodide  of  potassium  will  in  most  cases  effect  a. per- 
manent cure.  The  iodide  is  given  as  a  drench  in  doses 
of  from  \y2  to  2l/2  drams  dissolved  in  water,  once  a  day. 
The  dose  should  vary  with  the  size  of  the  animal  and 
the  effect  of  the  medicine.  In  the  course  of  a  week  or 
ten  days  signs  of  iodism  appears.  The  skin  is  scurfy, 
there  is  weeping  from  the  eyes,  catarrh  of  the  nose  and 
loss  of  appetite.  When  these  symptoms  appear  the 
doses  should  be  stopped  for  a  few  days,  and  then  re- 
sumed. The  remedy  will  generally  effect  a  cure  in  four 
or  five  weeks.  If  it  does  not  it  is  a  sign  that  the  par- 
ticular animal  is  not  subject  to  the  influence  of  the 
druef  and  cannot  be  cured. 

The  disease  is  not  considered  injurious  to  the  meat 
of  the  animal  excepting  in  extreme  cases  and  those  of 
long  standing.  However,  all  cattle  buyers  look  care- 


288  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

fully  for  animals  with  small  swellings  on  the  jaw  or 
side  of  the  face,  and  reject  them  on  suspicion.  At  the 
market  animals  with  the  disease  are  thrown  out  by  the, 
jovernment  inspectors  and  given  a  careful  examination, 
with  the  result  that  a  large  number  of  them  are  allowed 
to  go  to  slaughter  as  fit  for  human  consumption. 

Blackleg. — This  is  a  disease  of  the  blood.  It  is 
infectious  but  not  contagious,  and  confined  almost  wholly 
to  animals  between  the  ages  of  eight  months  and  two 
years.  Probably  80  per  cent  of  all  the  deaths  from 
blackleg  are  confined  to  animals  between  ten  and  four- 
teen months  old.  Cases  where  cattle  over  two  years  old 
have  died  from  it  are  extremely  rare  and  the  number 
dying  under  eight  months  is  not  large. 

The  disease  has  certain  well-defined  peculiarities. 
There  are  seldom  any  outbreaks  of  blackleg  during 
a  wet  season,  hence  a  certain  area  will  be  free  from  the 
trouble  for  several  years.  During  a  dry  year  when  the 
dust  about  watering-places  and  salt-grounds  is  deep 
and  blown  about  by  the  wind,  stockmen  prepare  for  a 
loss  by  blackleg.  As  a  general  thing,  the  fall  is  the 
favorite  time  for  the  appearance  of  blackleg,  although 
a  dry  spring  will  develop  it  under  certain  conditions. 
These  conditions  depend  upon  the  physical  condition 
of  the  animals.  As  a  rule,  the  disease  attacks  the  flower 
of  the  herd.  The  fatter  and  better  bred  the  animal,  the 
more  likely  it  is  to  have  blackleg.  Seldom  does  the 
disease  attack  a  poor  animal,  and  as  most  range  cattle 
are  far  from  fat  in  the  spring,  it  doubtless  is  due  to 
this  fact  that  the  losses  are  more  common  in  the  fall. 
After  the  summer  season  everything  is  fat  and  in  excel- 
lent condition  to  contract  the  trouble. 

Another    thing    that    seems    fairly    well    established 


THE   DISEASES    OF    CATTLE  289 

through  years  of  observation  is  that  blackleg  was  seldom 
known  in  the  early  days  of  the  range  business  when  the 
herds  were  bred  altogether  from  the  old  long-horned 
animals  of  the  Southwest.  It  will  hardly  do  to  say 
absolutely  that  the  scrub  will  not  contract  blackleg  but 
it  is  very  likely  that  if  a  careful  watch  were  kept  of  the 
progress  of  the  disease  in  a  bunch  of  100  pure-bred  year- 
lings and  100  scrubs,  all  grazing  on  the  same  range,  and 
under  identical  conditions,  a  large  majority  of  the  losses 
would  be  among  the  pure-breds. 

Blackleg  is  not  what  the  medical  fraternity  calls  a 
sporadic  disease.  It  cannot  originate  through  certain 
physical  conditions  on  a  range  where  it  was  never  be- 
fore known.  It  must  have  been  conveyed  there  through 
the  death  of  some  afflicted  animal  which,  dying,  carried 
into  the  ground  the  bacilli  of  the  disease.  Just  how  long 
the  bacilli  lie  dormant  in  the  ground  is  not  known.  I 
know  of  one  case  in  Arizona  where  a  yearling  dying  of 
blackleg  was  buried  several  feet  deep  on  the  banks  of 
a  creek  near  a  watering-place.  Six  years  later  the 
caving  of  the  bank  along  the  creek  uncovered  the  bones 
of  the  animal  and  not  long  after  there  was  an  outbreak 
of  blackleg  in  the  adjacent  pasture.  As  there  had  never 
been  but  one  known  death  from  the  disease  before,  and 
since  the  cattle  were  in  the  habit  of  lying  along  the 
creek  in  the  shade  of  the  high  banks,  there  was  little 
reason  to  doubt  that  the  disease  was  taken  into  the  ani- 
mals' systems  through  small  cuts  on  their  bodies  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  ground,  or  perhaps  licking  them- 
selves or  one  another,  and  thus  carrying  the  deadly 
bacilli  into  their  circulation  through  sore  places  or 
cuts  upon  the  inner  parts  of  the  lips  or  tongue.  That 
this  is  possible  has  been  repeatedly  proved  by  experi- 


290  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

ments  made  by  several  institutions,  notably  the  Okla- 
homa Experiment  Station. 

Calves  were  kept  under  identical  conditions.  Earth 
taken  from  the  spot  where  an  animal  had  died  from 
the  disease  was  placed  in  their  feed  in  such  a  way  that 
they  must  swallow  it.  Those  with  mouths  free  from  all 
cuts  or  injuries  whereby  the  bacilli  could  enter  the 
system  suffered  no  harm,  while  those  having  such  cuts  or 
injuries  died.  Again,  two  animals  were  taken  and  one 
given  several  gashes  in  its  hide,  deep  enough  to  go 
through  to  the  flesh.  Soil  from  the  same  place  was 
rubbed  all  over  each  calf,  working  it  down  into  the 
hair  close  to  the  hide.  The  animal  with  the  cuts  in 
its  side  died  of  blackleg,  while  the  other  showed  no 
signs  of  the  trouble. 

Every  stockman  knows  that  there  are  certain  places 
upon  the  western  ranges  where  the  disease  is  apt  to  oc- 
cur, while  just  over  a  mountain  range  or  across  a  river 
it  never  has  been  known.  Again,  in  fenced  areas  like 
northern  New  Mexico  pastures  and  in  the  Texas  Pan- 
handle fifty  animals  will  die  of  it  in  a  week,  while  in  the 
next  pasture,  only  separated  by  a  wire  fence,  stock  will 
graze  in  perfect  health/  The  simple  explanation  is  that 
the  second  pasture  has  never  been  inoculated  by  having 
an  animal  with  the  disease  die  inside  of  it. 

If  every  animal  that  died  of  blackleg  could  be  burned 
or  buried  in  quick  lime  it  is  probable  that  the  disease 
could  be  stamped  out  in  time,  but  the  trouble  on  open 
ranges  is  that  they  die  in  the  canyons  and  other  un- 
noticed spots  where  the  escaping  juices  from  the  de- 
caying body  run  out  over  the  ground,  scattering  the 
seeds  of  the  disease.  Years  after  a  calf  lies  on  the  spot 
and  through  some  cut  or  open  sore  the  dust  from  the 


THE   DISEASES    OF    CATTLE  291 

earth  gains  entrance  into  the  circulation  and  the  animal 
has  blackleg. 

The  disease  is  also  scattered  by  buzzards,  ravens  and 
other  carnivorous  birds  that  feast  upon  the  dead  bodies, 
carrying  pieces  to  distant  places  and  thus  infecting  other 
spots.  The  disease  does  not  affect  the  meat,  at  least  not 
to  the  extent  of  conveying  the  disease,  for  in  New 
Mexico  the  natives,  both  Mexican  and  Indian,  eagerly 
seize  upon  the  body  of  an  animal  dead  from  blackleg 
and  eat  it  with  no  resultant  injuries. 

The  symptoms  of  blackleg  are  a  'slight  lameness 
growing  rapidly  worse ;  disinclination  to  travel  and  death 
without  any  particular  struggle  or  suffering. 

The  disease  incubates  rapidly  and  the  time  between 
the  first  visible  signs  and  death  is  short,  generally  not 
more  than  twelve  hours  and  sometimes  not  more  than 
five  or  six. 

There  can  be  no  mistaking  an  animal  that  has  died  of 
this  disease.  An  hour  after  death  the  body  is  swollen 
to  the  uttermost  stretch  of  the  hide.  The  legs  are 
distended  at  full  length,  standing  out  from  the  body 
like  sticks ;  the  mouth  is  wide  open ;  the  eyes  bulge 
out;  and  the  openings  of  the  body  forced  far  out.  On 
pressing  the  hand  upon  the  body  it  feels  like  a  drum  and 
if  the  finger  be  pushed  into  the  fleshy  part  of  the  shoul- 
der or  leg  a  dry  crackling  sound  will  be  heard,  caused 
by  the  gas  formed  between  the  skin  and  flesh.  Drive 
the  blade  of  a  knife  into  the  flesh  and  a  frothy  pale 
liquid  will  ooze  out,  but  the  blood  does  not  flow  as  in 
ordinary  cases  of  death. 

It  is  not  known  whether  the  disease  can  be  transmit- 
ted to  man,  but  I  know  of  one  case  where  a  cowboy 
had  skinned  several  calves  dead  from  blackleg.  He  used 


292  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

his  pocket  knife  for  the  work,  placing  it  when  done,  wet 
with  blood,  in  his  pocket.  The  following  day  in  a  fight 
he  was  shot  through  the  leg  and  the  bullet  struck  the 
knife,  burying  it  deep  in  the  flesh.  The  leg  was  ampu- 
tated soon  after  but  in  spite  of  all  that  could  be  done 
the  man  died  in  a  few  days  of  blood  poisoning  which 
many  afterward  thought  to  be  blackleg.  Unfortunately 
no  one  thought  at  the  time  to  watch  the  symptoms 
carefully  nor  were  any  tests  made  of  his  blood  to  ascer- 
tain whether  or  not  the  bacilli  of  blackleg  were  pres- 
ent. That  this  man  died  of  blackleg  was  and  still  is 
the  conviction  of  nearly  every  one  in  that  region  ac- 
quainted with  the  facts. 

Remedial  Measures. — When  there  is  an  outbreak  of 
blackleg  it  is  too  late  to  save  stock  already  affected. 
Veterinary  science  can  protect  the  well  but  cannot  save 
the  sick.  The  immediate  removal  of  the  stock  from  the 
infected  pasture  or  vicinity  is  the  first  thing  to  be  done. 
A  common  method  of  fighting  it  is  for  the  men  to  mount 
their  horses  and  run  the  whole  herd  around  the  pasture 
or  range  for  some  time.  In  this  case  the  theory  is  that 
it  starts  the  blood  to  circulating  and  stops  the  coagulat- 
ing process  which  is  trie  effect  of  the  disease. 

I  have  known  men  to  spend  a  whole  day  driving  a 
herd  of  cattle  about  on  the  range  and  not  lose  one  from 
blackleg.  Of  course  there  is  nothing  settled  by  this 
statement,  because  it  is  impossible  definitely  to  state 
that  any  of  the  animals  so  handled  were  suffering  from 
the  disease  when  the  chasing  process  began.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  setons  formed  of  strips  of  cotton  cloth 
soaked  in  assafoetida,  turpentine  and  the  like  are  placed 
in  the  skins  of  the  suspected  animals.  Some  men  run 
them  through  the  dew-lap  and  others  through  the  tail, 


THE   DISEASES    OF    CATTLE  293 

close  against  the  body;  and  still  others,  through  the 
shoulder  where  one  places  a  seton  in  a  sweenied  horse. 
That  these  remedies  do  any  good  is  doubtful.  No  trials 
have  ever  been  made  with  animals  positively  known  to 
be  affected  with  the  disease,  so  that  it  can  neither  be  de- 
nied nor  affirmed. 

The  only  known  remedy  or  rather  preventive  that 
has  been  tested  and  approved  by  careful  experiments 
both  in  the  United  States  and  Europe  is  inoculation. 
This  is  done  by  various  means.  The  most  successful 
is  the  method  employed  by  the  Government  which  is 
by  means  of  hypodermic  injections  of  a  solution  pre- 
pared by  mixing  a  certain  quantity  of  the  finely  pul- 
verized dried  muscle  of  an  animal  that  has  died  of  black- 
leg with  distilled  water.  This  is  forced  by  the  syringe 
into  the  cavity  between  the  outer  skin  and  the  flesh, 
preferably  on  the  shoulder.  Animals  thus  treated  are 
immune  from  attacks  of  blackleg  if  it  is  done  after 
the  calf  is  eight  months  of  age.  If  done  earlier  the  ani- 
mal seems  to  outgrow  the  immunity  and  if  exposed 
will  contract  the  disease. 

Animals  so  treated  seldom  die  of  the  disease,  the 
percentage  being  extremely  small,  and  then  it  is  not 
always  certain  that  vaccination  was  properly  per- 
formed. It  is  estimated  that  on  many  western  ranges 
on  an  average  fully  10  per  cent  of  all  the  calves  die  of 
blackleg.  I  have  known  forty  calves  out  of  sixty  to 
die  in  ten  days  in  one  pasture  in  spite  of  all  the  reme- 
dies used.  On  the  other  hand  where  vaccination  is 
regularly  followed  the  loss  is  almost  wholly  wiped  out, 
the  few  that  die  probably  being  cases  where  the  dose 
was  wasted  through  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the 
operator  in  not  getting  the  needle  in  the  right  place.  In 


294  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

the  rush  of  doing  the  work  the  needle  can  very  readily 
be  stuck  through  a  fold  of  the  hide  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  will  come  out  on  the  other  side  of  the  fold  un- 
noticed in  the  hair,  and  the  dose  never  enter  the  ani- 
mal's body  at  all. 

I  have  vaccinated  my  thumb  at  least  twice,  and  jabbed 
a  dose  into  one  man's  leg  through  accident,  with  no 
harm,  except  a  close  call  for  a  good  drubbing  at  the 
hands  of  the  enraged  cowboy.  There  are  several  patent 
remedies  on  the  market  for  blackleg,  the  most  of  them 
being  some  form  of  administering  the  powdered  muscle 
without  going  to  the  trouble  of  mixing  up  a  liquid  and 
injecting  it  through  a  hypodermic  syringe.  Doubtless 
those  manufactured  by  responsible  firms  are  as  effica- 
cious as  the  powders  furnished  free  by  the  Govern- 
ment. The  main  thing  to  be  looked  after  in  them  all 
is  that  they  are  fresh.  Most  of  them  are  dated,  show- 
ing the  day  they  were  made  and  the  extreme  length  of 
time  which  they  may  be  kept  and  still  be  effective. 

Texas  Fever. — While  this  disease  is  not  general  over 
the  West,  it  is  well  that  the  grazier  should  know  some- 
thing about  it.  Broadly  speaking,  it  is  confined  to  all 
the  coast  country  of  thd  -United  States  which  lies  below 
the  1,500-foot  level,  south  of  Cape  Hatteras  and  clear 
around  to  the  Gulf  Coast.  This  level  is  not  an  exact 
line  but  the  ticks  do  not  survive  very  cold  weather,  and 
above  the  1,500- foot  line  the  winters  generally  kill  them. 
Texas  fever  is  found  in  nearly  all  of  the  southern  states 
and  along  the  coast  counties  of  southern  California. 

Many  years  ago  when  the  Texas  trail  was  in  full 
swing  the  cattle  grazing  along  the  trails  followed  by  the 
Texas  herds  died  of  some  mysterious  disease.  The  out- 
breaks seemed  unaccountable.  The  disease  did  not 


Portion  of  a  Steer's  Hide,  Showing  the  Texas-fever  Tick. 


296  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

last  long  and  did  not  seem  to  spread  beyond  the  ani- 
mals first  attacked.  The  settlers  soon  discovered  that 
the  victims  were  all  northern  stock  and  that  none  of 
the  Texas  animals  died.  They  also  realized  that  the 
losses  were  confined  to  the  cattle  which  grazed  about 
the  old  bed-grounds  where  the  trail  herds  had  been 
bedded  down  for  the  night.  The  disease  was  attributed 
to  many  causes.  The  droppings  of  the  trail  animals 
were  supposed  to  convey  it  in  some  manner.  Again  it 
was  the  slobber  of  the  animals  grazing  on  the  grasses 
by  means  of  which  the  trouble  was  caused.  In  fact, 
dozens  of  theories  were  advanced  for  the  cause  of  the 
deaths. 

The  settlers  arose  in  their  wrath  and  met  the  trail 
herds  with  their  rifles  and  in  some  sections  strict  guard 
was  kept  that  no  trail  herds  entered  certain  districts. 
For  years  no  amount  of  investigation  seemed  to  solve 
the  problem  until  a  veterinarian  took  up  the  question  of 
the  ticks  which  were  carried  upon  the  bodies  of  all 
Texas  cattle.  At  first  his  theories  were  ridiculed.  "All 
cattk  had  ticks."  "The  buffalo  had  them;  all  the  north- 
ern cattle  had  them  in  their  ears ;  deer  had  them ;  horses 
sometimes  had  them."'  But  the  veterinarian  persisted 
in  his  studies  of  the  matter  and  eventually  proved  that 
the  ticks  which  infested  the  Texas  cattle  were  different 
from  the  common  ear  tick  and  that  their  bodies  filled 
with  blood  drawn  from  the  Texas  cattle  conveyed  the 
disease  to  healthy  cattle. 

Still  the  Texans  doubted.  "Their  cattle  were  the 
healthiest  in  the  world."  "If  the  ticks  were  so  deadly 
why  didn't  their  cattle  die?"  This  side  of  the  ques- 
tion was  one  which  took  many  years  of  painstaking 
investigation  thoroughly  to  clear  up,  but  it  was  finally 


THE    DISEASES    OF    CATTLE  297 

done  to  the  satisfaction  of  even  the  Texans.  For  sev- 
eral years  the  "bull  tick"  theory  was  the  basis  for 
many  a  shot  at  investigating  veterinarians.  The  gist  of 
the  matter  was  that  Texas  cattle  through  long  years  of 
infection  had  become  immune  to  the  disease,  and  while 
still  carrying  in  their  blood  the  deadly  bacilli  of  the 
disease  did  not  themselves  succumb  to  it. 

The  Federal  Government  in  order  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  disease  has  drawn  a  line  called  a  quarantine 
line  which  extends  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  clear  across 
the  South  and  Southwest,  running  as  far  north  as  the 
northern  line  of  Oklahoma  and  southwest '  across  the 
northwest  portion  of  Texas  to  the  Mexican  line.  From 
below  this  line  no  cattle  may  be  removed  excepting  for 
immediate  slaughter.  At  the  present  time  the  Govern- 
ment is  experimenting  in  the  dipping  of  tick-infested 
animals  with  excellent  results.  A  campaign  is  also  being 
carried  on  looking  to  the  complete  eradication  of  ticks 
from  the  lands.  This  process  is  a  long  one  and  to  be 
successful  must  have  the  hearty  co-operation  of  inter- 
ested parties. 

By  means  of  changing  pastures,  moving  the  cattle 
back  and  forth  and  keeping  all  stock  off  certain  areas  for 
definite  periods,  the  ticks  may  be  starved  out  and  the 
land  freed  from  their  presence.  Twenty  years  ago  all 
of  California  south  of  San  Francisco  was  infested  with 
ticks  and  under  quarantine.  Today  by  these  methods 
the  state  is  free  from  ticks. 

The  life-history  of  the  tick  furnished  the  means  of  its 
extinction.  It  was  found  that  the  tick  lived  on  an  ani- 
mal for  a  certain  time,  then  dropped  off.,  laid  its  eggs  and 
died.  The  eggs  so  planted  developed,  according  to  the 
weather,  in  the  course  of  thirty  to  sixty  days.  The  young 


298  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

seed  ticks  then  began  crawling  about  looking  for  some 
animal  to  which  to  attach  themselves.  At  the  first  op- 
portunity this  was  done,  and  they  crawled  upon  the 
unsuspecting  beast  and  began  to  develop  immediately 
into  good-sized  ticks.  In  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days, 
if  the  animal  is  not  immune,  the  disease  breaks  out.  In 
three  weeks  the  insect  grows  to  adult  age,  drops  off 
and  begins. to  lay  its  eggs  under  some  convenient  chip 
or  piece  of  dung,  and  so  the  process  is  repeated  in- 
definitely. 

The  ticks  may  generally  be  discovered  inside  the 
thighs  and  on  the  escutcheon  and  belly  where  the  hide 
is  tender  and  the  hair  is  short.  While  most  all  cattle 
have  ear.  ticks,  and  some  body  ticks,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
recognize  the  true  fever  tick. 

Place  a  fever  tick  upon  the  hand  and  if  it  is  full- 
grown  it  will  be  all  day  crawling  across  it.  An  ear 
tick  of  the  same  size  will  do  it  in  a  few  minutes.  The 
full-grown  female  tick  is  of  a  slaty  blue  color,  about 
as  large  and  much  the  shape  of  a  grain  of  corn,  and 
with  eight  legs.  The  male  is  smaller,  rather  triangular 
in  shape  and  in  color  a  brick-red.  The  male's  legs  are 
much  longer  than  those"  of  the  female.  The  seven- 
teenth annual  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
contains  a  full  and  finely  illustrated  story  of  the  Texas 
fever  tick  which  should  be  read  by  every  one  interested 
in  the  subject. 

Scabies  or  Mange. — This  is  a  cattle  disease  similar  to 
scab  in  sheep.  The  mites,  however,  are  a .  different 
variety  of  the  same  species,  and  the  sheep  mites  will 
not  attack  cattle  nor  will  cattle  mites  make  a  host  of 
sheep.  The  symptoms  are  the  same  in  each  case.  The 
constant  desire  to  scratch,  raw  bleeding  necks  and  shoul- 


1   and  2,    Male.     3  and  4,   Female. 
Dorsal    and    Ventral    Views    of    the    Texas-Fever    Tick. 


300  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

ders  where  the  animals  have  scratched  till  the  flesh  is 
torn  and  a  falling  off  of  the  hair  until  in  extreme  cases 
the  victims  are  almost  bare — all  these  conditions  point 
to  the  trouble. 

The  disease,  which  has  existed  in  the  western  ranges 
for  many  years,  did  not  reach  any  serious  stages  until 
about  ten  years  ago,  being  contagious  but  very  slow  in 
spreading.  Mange  does  not  primarily  cause  the  death 
of  cattle  but  simply  cuts  their  vitality  down  and  saps 
their  strength  till  they  fall  easy  victims  to  bog  holes 
or  hard  winters.  So  long  as  the  animals  are  in  good 
flesh  they  seem  able  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  the 
mites  and  the  disease  makes  but  little  if  any  headway. 
With  the  coining  of  a  hard  winter,  short  feed  and  long 
storms,  animals  rapidly  lose  flesh,  and  then  the  mange 
mites  begin  to  thrive. 

Some  veterinarians  think  that  the  mites  are  repulsed 
by  the  excess  of  fat  in  the  animals'  skins  and  lie  dor- 
mant until  this  excess  is  lost,  when  they  emerge  from 
their  hiding  places  to  feast  on  an  already  suffering 
and  debilitated  animal.  Thus  it  is  that  the  disease  may 
exist  in  a  herd  for  a  long  time  and  then  during  some 
hard  winter  when  the  cattle  lose  flesh  the  mange  makes 
its  appearance  and  the  owner  wonders  where  they 
"caught"  it.  Western  stockmen  made  no  serious  fight 
against  the  mange  until  through  shipping  it  had  spread 
all  over  the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  espe- 
cially on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rockies  and  out  into 
the  great  plains  country  to  the  east.  Then  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  took  hold  of  it,  and 
in  six  years  has  been  able  greatly  to  reduce  the  in- 
fected area  and  in  some  states  has  completely  eradi- 
cated it.  Had  the  Government  from  the  first  secured 


THE    DISEASES    OF    CATTLE  301 

the  co-operation  of  the  states  and  stockmen  interested, 
as  it  should,  the  disease  would  not  exist  today  any- 
where in  the  West,  excepting  in  isolated  cases. 

The  same  methods  of  righting  mange  are  used  as 
with  scabby  sheep  and  the  losses  from  dipping  are  very 
light — no  more  than  the  losses  in  dipping  sheep. 

Dipping  a  herd  of  cattle  is  no  light  task,  and  the 
outlay  for  a  dipping  plant  is  much  greater  than  for 
sheep.  However,  the  ridding  of  the  cattle  of  lice,  ticks 
and  other  parasites  that  worry  them  makes  the  opera- 
tion one  from  which  the  stockman  gets  good  returns, 
and  many  find  it  a  wise  plan  to  dip  their  herds  at  least 
once  every  two  years  for  this  purpose  alone. 

A  successful  spraying  machine  is  now  used  with  ex- 
cellent results.  The  animals  are  driven  through  a  long 
steel  cylinder  large  enough  to  let  them  walk  through 
readily.  Inside  this  cylinder  thousands  of  needle-like 
nozzles  spray  a  hot  liquid  dip,  the  basis  of  which  is 
Texas  crude  oil.  This  is  forced  out  at  tremendous  pres- 
sure and  the  animal  is  thoroughly  covered  with  the  solu- 
tion by  the  time  it  reaches  the  exit. 

The  cost  of  dipping  cattle  by  any  method  is  about 
15  cents  per  head  for  each  operation,  but  this  may  be 
reduced  by  handling  a  large  number  of  cattle  at  one 
plant.  As  with  sheep,  where  the  animals  are  gentle  and 
can  be  handled,  they  may  be  doctored  for  mange  by 
swabbing  them  over  with  the  solution,  giving  the  rubbed 
and  bare  places  a  vigorous  scrubbing  with  a  stiff  brush 
dipped  in  the  "medicine." 

In  the  spring,  when  they  are  shedding,  cattle  are 
likely  to  look  as  if  mangy,  but  they  are  simply  losing 
their  winter  coats  and  rub  to  get  rid  of  the  hair.  If  one 
is  fearful  of  the  presence  of  mange  mites,  take  hold  of 


Dipping   Cattle   in   Oklahoma  for   Texas-fever  Ticks. 


THE   DISEASES    OF    CATTLE  303 

the  hair  where  they  are  seen  to  scratch  and  pull  off  a 
flake  of  it.  By  placing  the  lock  of  hair  under  an  ordinary 
glass,  such  as  almost  every  Western  man  has  handy,  and 
examining  it  closely  at  the  roots,  the  mites,  if  there  are 
any,  will  readily  be  discovered,  very  much  alive. 

In  mange  scurfy  scale-like  stuff  comes  away  with  the 
hair,  which. is  but  the  dead  tissue  where  the  mites  have 
burrowed  in  the  skin  and  the  scab  which  forms  sticks 
to  the  roots  of  the  hair.  The  disease  among  horses 
is  much  the  same  in  all  its  symptoms  and  can  be  simi- 
larly handled. 

A  few  years  ago  in  northern  New  Mexico  mange  ob- 
tained a  footing  and  spread  among  the  range  horses 
until  with  a  very  hard  winter  thousands  of  horses  died. 
Probably  many  of  them  would  have  died  anyhow  but  any 
one  seeing  a  bunch  of  the  horses,  some  of  them  as  bare 
of  hair  as  a  picked  chicken,  with  great  raw  places  on 
their  necks  and  shoulders  where  they  scratched  on  the 
rocks  and  trees,  had  little  doubt  that  mange  did  much 
to  hasten  the  coming  of  the  end.  A  strenuous  cam- 
paign of  dipping  the  next  season  carried  on  by  the  ter- 
ritorial authorities  stopped  the  spread  of  the  disease 
and,  so  far  as  can  be  seen  today,  completely  eradi- 
cated it. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
THE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 

Practically  scab  is  the  only  disease  which  bothers  the 
western  sheepmen.  Foot  rot,  intestinal  worms  and  those 
diseases  which  are  a  blight  on  the  sheep  industry  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River  are  unknown  in  the  regions 
west  of  it.  This  is  due  doubtless  to  the  high  dry  at- 
mosphere which  offers  no  climatic  conditions  favorable 
to  the  progress  or  even  inception  of  these  diseases. 

Scabies. — Thanks  to  the  tireless  work  done  by  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  this  trouble  has  been  so 
successfully  combatted  that  it  is  practically  eliminated 
from  many  of  the  range  states  and  is  found  in  very  iso- 
lated cases  in  the  balance.  This  work  was  not  done 
without  considerable  friction  and  criticism  from  the 
very  men  whom  it  was  intended  to  help.  Naturally 
the  progressive  go-ahead  sheepmen  eagerly  welcomed 
the  coming  of  the  government  men  with  their  constant 
inspections  and  never-ceasing  vigilance ;  but  to  many  it 
seemed  an  unnecessary  hardship,  as  well  as  an  invasion 
of  their  individual  liberties. 

Some  of  the  states  had  fought  the  scab  through  their 
local  officials  but  no  great  headway  was  made  until  the 
Federal  Government  took  a  hand  in  it,  and  by  virtue  of 
its  authority  to  supervise  interstate  shipments  of  stock 
compelled  those  who  would  not  dip  to  protect  themselves 

304 


THE   DISEASES   OF    SHEEP  305 

to  do  so  to  protect  others.  The  Federal  authorities  could 
not  go  on  the  ranges  and  quarantine  the  sheep,  but 
as  soon  as  offered  for  interstate  shipment  it  could 
quarantine  and  thus  force  the  owner  to  take  care  of 
them. 

The  states  were  generally  quick  to  co-operate  with  the 
Government  in  this  matter,,  and  in  the  most  of  them  they 
worked  hand  in  hand,  with  very  satisfactory  results. 
Naturally  where  a  state  has  once  been  freed  from  this 
disease  a  moderate  amount  of  supervision  and  watch- 
fulness on  the  part  of  the  local  authorities  will  pre- 
vent any  further  spread  of  the  trouble. 

Scab  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  animal  diseases.  Moses 
in  his  voluminous  instructions  to  his  followers,  speak- 
ing of  sheep  offered  as  sacrifices  to  the  Lord,  says  in 
Leviticus  22 :22 : 

"Blind  or  broken,,  or  maimed,  or  having 
a  wen,  or  scurvy  or  scabbed,  ye  shall  not 
make  an  offering." 

Scab  exists  almost  everywhere  where  sheep  are  raised. 
In  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa  it  is  common.  Australia 
fought  it  with  success  and  very  little  of  it  is  to  be 
found  among  the  millions  of  sheep  there.  The  cause  is 
a  species  of  mite  known  as  Psoroptes  communis.  Pso- 
roptes  is  a  Greek  word  meaning  "mites  that  hide  under 
the  skin."  Horses  and  cattle  also  have  scabies,  but 
the  mites  are  different,  and  the  disease  cannot  be  car- 
ried from  a  sheep  to  a  cow,  or  vice  versa.  It  can,  how- 
ever, be  contracted  by  man.  Sheep  have  been  known  to 
contract  the  disease  after  being  bedded  down  on  a 
bed-ground  which  sheep  had  not  used  for  more  than  a 
year.  As  the  disease  is  carried  entirely  by  the  mites 
they  must  have  lived  in  the  ground  for  that  long  at  least. 


306  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

These  mites  on  obtaining  a  position  on  an  animal  begin 
at  once  to  bore  into  the  hide.  This  creates  the  intense 
itching,  a  crust  or  scab  is  formed,  the  mites  move  onto 
the  adjoining  healthy  flesh  and  thus  the  disease  spreads. 

Sheep  afflicted  with  scabies  are  easily  discovered  in 
a  flock.  The  animals  are  restless,  scratch  and  rub 
against  posts  and  walls  and  bite  the  itching  places  un- 
til in  severe  cases  their  noses  will  be  all  bloody  and 
the  flesh  torn  and  bleeding.  It  generally  shows  first 
about  the  neck  and  shoulders,  because  the  suffering  ani- 
mal can  more  easily  reach  that  part  to  scratch.  The 
wool  has  a  peculiar  tagged  or  tufted  condition  and  bare 
spots  appear  on  the  animal  where  it  has  fallen  off,  due 
to  the  work  of  the  mites.  After  being  driven  or  heated 
up,  the  animals  are  worse,  as  the  increased  heat  of  the 
body  tends  to  aggravate  the  desire  to  scratch. 

Remedies. — Fortunately  scab  is  a  disease  that  can  be 
readily  stamped  out.  In  small  herds  where  the  animals 
are  under  close  control,  by  catching  each  animal  and 
"doctoring"  it  with  a  commercial  dip  smeared  on  with  a 
swab  or  rag  soaked  in  the  fluid,  wherever  there  are 
signs  of  it,  the  trouble  can  be  checked.  In  large  herds, 
as  on  the  western  ranges,  dipping  plants  are  used.  These 
plants  are  sometimes  owned  by  the  sheepmen,  in  some 
cases  they  are  built  and  maintained  as  commercial 
enterprises,  a  small  charge  being  made  for  their  use. 
Under  usual  conditions  a  large  number  of  sheep  can  be 
sent  through  a  dip  each  day,  and  with  a  good  crew 
there  is  little  delay  in  the  operation.  The  swim  generally 
is  so  timed  that  each  sheep  is  in  about  one  minute.  The 
men  in  charge  see  to  it  by  means  of  forked  sticks  that 
each  animal  is  "ducked"  completely  under  at  least  once 
during  the  swim  across. 


THE   DISEASES   OF    SHEEP 


307 


Dips  in  Use. — There  are  several  different  dips  in  use 
known  from  their  ingredients,  as  creosote,  tobacco  with 
carbolic  acid,  lime  and  sulphur.  The  latter  dip  is  gener- 
ally used  by  Government  officials.  The  majority  of  these 
dips  must  be  used  when  heated  to  get  the  best  effects, 
and  in  order  that  the  disease  maybe  absolutely  cured 


After   Being   Dipped,   the   Sheep    Pass   Through   a   Dripping   Pen   at   the   End. 

it  is  necessary  to  use  it  twice  at  periods  of  about  ten 
days.  This  allows  time  for  any  nits  or  eggs  deposited 
on  the  animals  to  be  hatched  out  and  killed,  as  few 
of  the  dips  will  affect  them  before  that  time. 

The  cost  of  dipping  sheep  varies  according  to  the 
dip  used,  but  on  an  average  it  costs  about  3  cents  per 
head  to  dip  a  band  of  sheep  once.  In  fighting  the  dis- 


308  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

ease  on  the  ranges  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  all 
old  corrals  and  bed-grounds  be  either  burned  or  disin- 
fected. Posts  near  such  places  and  also  tree  trunks 
where  the  affected  animals  may  have  rubbed  and  thus 
left  a  starter  for  a  new  outbreak,  should  be  well  treated 
with  strong  solutions  of  the  dip.  Like  all  such  troubles 
it  is  a  case  of  eternal  vigilance,  and  the  wideawake 
sheepman  dips  his  herd  each  spring,  no  matter  whether 
the  sheep  show  signs  of  the  disease  or  not.  The  dip- 
ping is  good  for  the  sheep,  they  are  rid  of  all  ticks  and 
such  insect  pests  for  the  time  and  as  a  general  thing 
the  growth  and  staple  of  the  wool  are  improved  by  the 
operation. 

Lip  and  Leg  Ulceration. — This  disease  is  local  in  its 
geographical  extent  at  present,  being  confined  to  cer- 
tain well-defined  areas  in  Wyoming  and  Montana,  where 
it  has  existed  for  many  years  in  a  mild  form,  but  finally 
through  shipping  and  moving  the  herds  about,  on  the 
ranges,  it  became  epidemic  over  a  considerable  area. 
These  areas  have  been  quarantined  and  by  co-operative 
work  between  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  the 
board  of  sheep  commissioners  of  each  state  is  in  a  fair 
way  to  be  stamped  ou£' 

The  disease,  like  scab,  does  not  always  kill  the  ani- 
mal affected  but  lowers  its  general  condition  and  keeps 
it  in  poor  flesh.  It  is  a  highly  infectious  disease, 
sheep  apparently  picking  up  the  germs  on  the  range 
as  they  feed.  Ranges  having  a  great  deal  of  cactus,  so 
that  in  feeding  the  animals  get  their  lips  and  noses 
pricked,  are  the  most  dangerous,  for  the  disease  seems 
to  be  carried  from  one  sheep  to  another  by  the  deposit 
on  the  feed  of  the  pus  or  discharged  matter  from  the 
sores,  on  the  animal's  body,  legs  or  lips.  On  such  ranges 
it  is  difficult  to  eradicate. 


THE   DISEASES   OF   SHEEP  309 

The  symptoms  are  lameness  in  one  or  all  of  the 
feet,  and  the  animal  shrinks  rapidly  in  flesh.  The  little 
sores  on  the  nose  and  lips  and  other  places  discharge 
an  offensive  greenish  pus,  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  disease.  It  is  through  this  pus  dropping  on  feed 
that  the  disease  is  spread  over  the  ranges. 

The  disease  yields  to  almost  any  of  the  better  class 
of  sheep  dips,  or  to  a  l-to-5  solution  of  water  and  nitric 
acid.  In  some  cases  the  victims  can  be  treated  by 
wading  them  through  shallow  pans  or  dips  containing 
enough  of  the  medicine  to  cover  the  hoofs.  The  only 
way  to  get  at  the  sores  on  the  body  is  to  'take  each 
animal  and  doctor  it  with  a  swab,  taking  care  to  have 
every  sore  cleansed  of  all  pus  before  the  treatment  is 
applied.  In  some  serious  cases  where  the  animals  have 
been  neglected  the  disease  affects  the  hoofs,  and  they 
drop  off. 

The  infection  also  enters  lambs  through  the  freshly- 
docked  tails  or  the  scrotum  after  castration;  in  fact,  it 
is  ready  to  locate  in  or  on  any  wound,  however  slight. 
The  infection  of  the  body  or  in  such  places  as  are  men- 
tioned comes  doubtless  when  the  animal  lies  on  the 
ground.  The  germ  is  apparently  very  tenacious  of  life, 
and  sheep  using  a  range  infected  with  it  must  be  con- 
stantly inspected.  At  present  the  disease  is  not  thor- 
oughly understood  but  it  is  being  carefully  studied  by 
Government  veterinarians. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
DISEASES  OF  HORSES. 

It  is  not  possible  in  a  work  of  this  size  to  give  a  full 
and  complete  list  of  the  diseases  to  which  horses  are  sub- 
ject. But  we  may  properly  note  some  of  the  most  common 
maladies  which  at  one  time  or  another  are  likely  to 
attack  every  horse.  The  fact  that  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions of  use  horses  are  apt  to  be  taken  sick  at  places 
where  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  the  services  of  a  veterin- 
ary surgeon  makes  it  necessary  that  all  men  who  own 
horses  should  know  something  of  the  best  methods  to 
be  taken  to  relieve  them  when  sick. 

Of  the  many  diseases  to  which  horses  may  at  times 
be  subject  the  following  have  been  selected  as  those 
most  likely  to  trouble  the  average  western  stockman. 
In  all  of  these  if  a  veterinarian  is  to  be  had,  call  him 
in,  but  if  not,  study  the  ^symptoms  carefully  before  de- 
ciding what  remedy  to  use.  If  the  animal  assumes  un- 
usual attitudes,  as  sitting  up  on  its  hindquarters  like 
a  dog,  rolling  onto  its  back  with  feet  in  the  air,  or  rest- 
ing on  the  knees  while  standing  on  its  hind  feet,  and 
sweats  profusely,  it  is  safe  to  look  for  colic  or  some 
trouble  with  the  digestive  organs. 

If  the  horse  has  been  standing  in  the  stable  for 
several  days,  fed  full  rations  of  hay  and  grain  and 
given  little  or  no  exercise,  it  may  when  led  show  lame- 
ness in  one  or  more  legs,  heavy  sweating,  general  stiff- 
si  o 


DISEASES  OF   HORSES  311 

ness  all  over,  loss  of  control  over  the  hindquarters,  some- 
times falling  to  the  ground,  trembling  of  limbs  and  body, 
passing  ropy  and  deep-colored  urine  under  consider- 
able strain.  It  is  then  safe  to  suspect  azoturia,  due  to 
a  lack  of  exercise  and  heavy  feeding. 

If  the  animal's  head  or  neck  is  swollen  to  twice  the 
natural  size,  the  eyes  almost  closed,  high  fever,  no 
appetite,  a  tendency  to  giddiness,  sometimes  falling,  as 
in  a  faint,  the  trouble  is  likely  to  be  due  to  a  snake 
bite. 

Colic. — Two-thirds  of  the  troubles  of  horses  are  due 
to  colic.  Veterinarians  recognize  several  kinds  of  colic: 
engorgement  colic,  obstruction  colic,  wind  colic,  or  bloat, 
spasmodic  colic,  and  worm  colic.  To  simplify  the  work 
of  the  layman  who  is  called  on  to  doctor  a  sick  horse,  I 
shall  reduce  these  to  two  heads  under  which  most  of  the 
cases  will  fall. 

The  symptoms  of  engorgement  and  obstruction  colic 
are  to  the  ordinary  stockman  much  the  same  and  the 
remedies  available  about  the  average  home  or  ranch  may 
be  used  in  each  case.  The  stomach  has  been  over- 
loaded, the  bowels  and  large  intestines  are  obstructed 
and  the  functions  of  the  digestive  system  at  a  stand- 
still. The  remedies  therefore  are  similar  to  those  which 
would  be  used  in  the  same  trouble  in  the  human.  Open 
the  bowels  get  rid  of  the  accumulated  mass  in  the  stom- 
ach and  intestines,  and  relieve  the  pain. 

Engorgement  or  Obstruction  Colic. — Symptoms  :  The 
animal  shows  it  is  in  great  pain,  although  it  may  be  in- 
termittent in  character  and  at  times  the  animal  is  ap- 
parently not  suffering.  It  rolls,  bites  its  sides,  lies  flat 
on  the  side  with  feet  and  head  extended,  looking  back 
at  its  flanks  occasionally  as  if  there  was  the  seat  of  the 


312  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

trouble;  gets  up  and  roams  about  the  stall,  then  lies 
down  again,  sweats  profusely  at  times,  switches  its  tail, 
tries  to  urinate  frequently;  sometimes  sits  up  on  its 
haunches  like  a  dog,  or  kneels  down  like  a  trick  horse. 
Again  it  will  try  to  roll  so  as  to  get  on  the  back,  with 
all  four  feet  in  the  air.  These  positions  seem  to  give 
some  ease  from  the  pain.  Often  it  groans  loudly,  as 
if  to  show  the  pain  it  is  suffering. 

For  the  bowels  there  are  many  home  remedies  avail- 
able, as  one  pound  of  Glauber's  or  Epsom  salts;  or  a 
pint  to  a  quart  of  linseed  or  castor  oil  with  15  drops  of 

croton  oil  added ;  or  one  ounce  of  powdered  >aloes,  two 
,  .  .  \4^U^c%<™  ^,  Afr*&~"*ur.€nT  . 

drams  of  calomel,  ontf  dram  of  powdered  nux  vomica 

mixed  thoroughly.  A  gallon  or  more  of  warm,  soapy 
water  administered  as  an  injection  twice — at  hourly  in- 
tervals— should  always  follow  any  of  the  other  remedies 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  reaching  the  trouble  through 
the  stomach. 

An  entire  bottle  of  Jamaica  ginger  or  any  of  the 
various  pain  killers  or  cholera  remedies  that  are  to  be 
found  in*  almost  every  country  home  or  store  will  very 
materially  allay  the  pain.  Dilute  them  with  a  pint  of 
water.  Do  not  give  all  of  these  remedies  at  once;  do 
not  give  a  second  dose  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours,  as 
it  takes  that  long  for  the  bowels  of  the  horse  to  move. 
Give  a  full  dose  at  one  time  rather  than  two  small  sep- 
erate  doses.  Don't  kill  the  animal  with  kindness ;  give  the 
medicine  a  chance  to  work,  and  the  animal  a  chance  to 
get  well.  In  bad  cases  the  hand  and  arm  may  be  greased 
or  soaped  and  inserted  in  the  rectum  and  the  hard  pieces 
of  fecal  matter  removed.  This  will  materially  assist  the 
medicines. 

Wind  Colic. — In  wind  colic  many  of  the  symptoms  are 


DISEASES  OF   HORSES  313 

similar  to  those  of  impaction  of  the  stomach.  The  cause 
of  this  colic  is  over-heating  and  over-feeding,  going 
without  feed  for  a  long  time  and  then  being  too  heavily 
fed;  too  much  green  feed;  new  hay  and  grain,  espe- 
cially oats  and  corn  or  sour  grain  or  feed. 

In  addition  to  the  symptoms  already  given,  the  belly 
is  considerably  enlarged  and  bloated  and  if  struck  in 
Tront  of  the  hips  and  back  of  the  ribs  it  gives  forth  a 
hollow  drum-like  sound,  due  to  the  accumulated  wind 
or  gas.  In  serious  cases  there  is  profuse  sweating,  in- 
tense pains  with  violent  twitchings  of  the  stomach; 
trembling  of  the  limbs  and  staggering  from  side  to  side. 
In  fact,  the  symptoms  are  quite  like  those  in  man 
when  suffering  from  a  bad  attack  of  stomach  ache. 
The  sure  symptom  is  the  drum-like  sound  of  the  stom- 
ach when  struck,  and  the  tightly  stretched  skin  over 
the  stomach  walls. 

The   same   physics   should    be   given,    and    the    same 
medicines  for  alleviating  the  paints  in  the  other  form      / p^A** 
of  colic.    A  tablespoonful  of  c^\r^yr^c^\\\r\o.  nr  npmjn    7    ' 
will   ease   the   pain.     Rub    the   flanks   with   turpentine, 
covering  a  spot  about  eight  inches  across  just  behind 
the   ribs   and   rather   low   down   on   the   body.     If   the 
animal  is  down  lay  heavy  pieces  of  blanket  wet  in  very 
hot  water  on  the  body,  changing  them  as  they  cool. 

For  this  colic  one  of  the  best  remedies  I  have  ever 
used  is  chloral  hydrate,  mentioned  in  the  Government 
work  alluded  to  on  page  284  of  this  book.  This  is  used 
in  a  drench,  one  ounce  to  a  pint  of  warm  water.  See 
that  every  particle  of  the  drug  is  taken  up  by  the 
liquid,  as  it  is  a  strong  irritant  to  the  mouth  and  throat. 
It  is  an  inexpensive  material  to  keep  on  hand  and  does 
not  seem  to  lose  strength  when  kept  bottled.  We  always 


314  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

kept  an  empty  ounce  bottle   for  a  measure  and   never 
failed  to  get  good  results  from  its  use. 

As  it  also  relieves  pain,  the  use  of  other  drugs  like 
morphine  or  painkillers  is  not  necessary  when  this 
remedy  is  to  be  had.  One  dose  generally  did  the  work 
but  in  severe  cases  we  gave  a  second  dose  after  an  hour 
or  two,  but  no  more. 

In  both  kinds  of  colic  I  have  seen  excellent  results 
from  kneading  or  working  the  stomach  so  as  to  help 
the  bowels  work  off  gas  and  accumulated  feed.  Where 
the  animal  is  standing  on  its  feet,  take  a  smooth  pole, 
like  a  pitchfork  handle,  or  a  neck  yoke,  pass  it  under 
the  animal's  belly  and  with  a  man  at  each  end  slide  it 
slowly  back  and  forth  on  the  belly,  pressing  upward 
as  much  as  possible.  This  will  stimulate  the  bowel 
action  and  give  great  relief  to  the  animal. 

Finally,  in  all  kinds  of  colic,  do  not  over-dose  the 
patient;  give  the  medicines  a  chance  to  operate;  and 
remember  that,  as  a  general  thing,  the  symptoms  of 
the  trouble  and  the  remedies  for  it  are  much  the  same 
as  in  the  case  where  a  man  is  treated,  only  on  a  larger 
scale. 

Azoturia. — This  trouble  always  puzzles  the  ordinary 
stockman.  His  horse  has  not  been  used,  has  been 
standing  idle  in  the  stable,  has  been  fed  regularly  and 
apparently  was  in  the  best  of  spirits  when  led  out  to 
be  used.  Yet  inside  of  the  first  100  yards  or  so  he 
began  to  limp  on  one  or  more  legs ;  his  fire  was  all 
eone ;  he  seemed  dull  and  heavy-eyed ;  his  flanks  wen1 
heaving  and  the  sweat  came  from  every  pore.  He 
seemed  unable  to  use  his  hind  limbs  they  wabbled  as 
he  staggered  along  and  finally  he  dropped  in  the  road,  a 
pitiful  sight.  The  urine  that  is  passed  is  very  dark-col- 


DISEASES  OF   HORSES  315 

ored,  being  sometimes  almost  brown  or  black,  like  thick 
coffee.  The  victim  may  die  in  a  few  hours  or  may  re- 
cover as  soon.  Again  there  may  be  a  partial  paralysis 
of  the  hind  limbs  which  lasts  for  months,  and  possibly 
the  animal  may  never  fully  recover.  « 

The  cause  of  azoturia  is  overfeeding  with  rich  feeds, 
as  grains,  especially  oats,  cottonseed-meal  and  alfalfa, 
with  lack  of  exercise.  Where  animals  have  the  run  of  a 
small  lot  or  barnyard  the  disease  seldom  is  found.  The 
animals  attacked  are  those  confined  in  close  stalls  for 
several  days,  fed  regularly  and  given  no  exercise  to  aid 
nature  in  digesting  the  feed. 

Remedies. — In  the  beginning  something  to  loosen  up 
the  bowels  is  necessary,  a  dose  consisting  of  four  to  six 
drams  of  powdered  aloes  or  a  pound  of  Glauber's  salts 
being  advisable.  Follow  this  with  a  dose  consisting  of 
four  drams  of  bromide  of  potassium  with  one  ounce  of 
sweet  spirits  of  nitre  given  every  five  or  six  hours,  for 
three  or  four  times,  until  the  nervous  conditions  are  re- 
lieved. The  bromide  quiets  the  nerves  and  the  nitre  in- 
creases the  urinary  secretions.  A  well-known  veterina- 
rian recommends  a  tablespoon  of  powdered  saltpetre  in 
a  quart  of  water  given  as  a  drench. 

Get  the  animal  home  as  soon  as  possible  and  give  it 
moderate  daily  exercise,  keep  the  bowels  open,  and  cut 
down  the  feed  to  the  minimum.  If  the  paralysis  of  the 
limbs  comes  the  advice  of  a  good  veterinarian  will  be 
needed  if  a  recovery  is  hoped  for. 

Snake  Bites. — Symptoms :  If  the  attack  by  a  snake  is 
seen,  the  remedies  to  be  used  can  be  applied  immediate- 
Iv.  but  probably  nine-tenths  of  all  such  injuries  take 
place  when  animals  are  grazing  in  pastures  and  nothing 
is  known  of  it.  A  horse  comes  in  with  its  head  or  neck 


316  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

swollen  to  twice  the  natural  size;  the  eyes  are  shut  and 
running  water;  there  is  high  fever  with  dry  parched 
lips;  the  appetite  is  gone;  there  is  a  tendency  to  giddi- 
ness, the  beast  sometimes  falling  as  in  a  faint.  Possibly 
the  point  where  the  fangs  entered  may  be  seen,  due  to 
the  small  holes  left  from  which  the  blood  or  suppurated 
matter  is  running. 

Where  the  conditions  are  so  far  along  very  little  can 
be  done  except  to  keep  the  horse  up  and  give  it  large 
doses  of  aqua  ammonia,  alcohol  or  whiskey  diluted  in 
two  quarts  of  water.  These  reemdies  are  simply  to  stim- 
ulate and  revive  the  animal,  and  give  it  life  enough  to 
overcome  the  effects  of  the  poison.  Opening  the  point 
where  the  swelling  indicates  the  wound  or  bite  to  have 
been  made,  and  letting  the  blood  flow,  will  do  consid- 
erable good.  A  poultice  on  the  opening  will  also  assist 
in  a  cure.  If  the  bite  is  received  on  the  limbs,  and  is  no- 
ticed immediately,  a  ligature  or  tourniquet  about  the 
limb  above  the  place,  made  by  using  a  handkerchief  or 
cord  tightened  sufficiently  to  stop  the  circulation,  should 
be  used.  Then  with  a  knife  open  the  wound  if  it  can  be 
found,  and  allow  the  blood  to  flow,  being  careful  to  keep 
it  out  of  any  sores  or  wounds  on  the  hands.  In  fifteen 
minutes  loosen  the  ligature  a  little  and  allow  the  blood 
to  circulate  for  a  moment;  then  close  it  down  again. 
Repeat  this  operation  four  or  five  times.  By  this  means 
the  poison  gradually  finds  its  way  through  the  body  and 
its  action  is  not  so  deadly.  Quart-doses  of  whiskey  or 
six  ounces  (a  teacupful)  of  ammonia  diluted  with  a 
quart  of  water  should  be  given  to  stimulate  the  animal. 
Few  horses  or  cattle  die  of  snake  bites  and  in  ordinary 
circumstances  will  recover  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  days. 

Glanders  or  Farcy. — Many  cases  of  this  disease  occur 


DISEASES  OF   HORSES  317 

among  horses  all  over  the  country,  and  one  cannot  be 
too  careful  when  buying  a  horse  to  make  certain  that  it 
is  not  suffering  from  the  disease.  Again,  in  bringing 
valuable  animals  into  contact  with  other  horses  it  is  well 
to  be  on  the  lookout  for  signs  of  the  affliction.  This  is 
especially  true  in  using  corrals,  stables  and  feed  yards 
throughout  the  West,  where  there  is  a  constant  stream 
of  horses  coming  and  going  all  the  time,  eating  from 
the  same  feed-boxes,  and  watering  from  the  same 
troughs. 

There  are  two  forms  of  the  disease;  glanders  and 
farcy.  It  is  called  glanders  when  the  disease  makes 
its  outbreaks  in  the*  nostrils,  throat  and  lungs.  Farcy 
comes  in  the  shape  of  small  ulcers  or  boils  which  appear 
most  frequently  on  the  lips,  neck,  shoulders  and  inside 
the  thighs,  and  may  also  be  found  elsewhere.  These  are 
called  farcy  "buds"  and  may  be  from  the  size  of  a  pea 
to  that  of  a  walnut. 

The  average  horse  dealer  and  country  "hoss"  doctor 
talks  of  "fearcy"  as  a  trouble  quite  apart  from  glanders, 
and  also  affects  to  laugh  at  glanders,  calling  it  simply 
chronic  catarrh,  influenza  or  cold  in  the  head,  and  as- 
sures one  that  it  is  easily  cured  and  not  contagious.  The 
truth  is  that  glanders  and  farcy  are  one  and  the  same 
disease.  Both  are  highly  infectious  not  only  to  horses 
but  to  man.  Both  are  incurable,  and  may  exist  in  an 
animal  for  years  without  causing  death,  while  spreading 
the  trouble  far  and  wide  among  other  horses  with  which 
it  comes  in  contact. 

If  a  horse  has  a  bad  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  keep 
it  away  from  all  other  stock,  feed  and  water  it  separate- 
ly and  in  every  way  protect  the  others  from  it.  One 
should  be  careful  how  one  handles  it,  as  if  glanders  is 


318  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

present  the  infection  from  the  discharge  in  a  sore  on 
one's  hands,  or  blown  by  the  animal  from  the  nostril  into 
a  corner  of  the  eye  or  a  sore  on  the  body,  it  will  convey 
the  disease. 

If  the  horse  has  small  nodules  or  sores  like  little  angry 
ulcers  inside  the  nostrils,  especially  on  the  division  be- 
tween the  two  sides  of  the  nose,  look  out  for  it.  Feel 
under  the  jaws  on  the  outside  about  at  the  base  of  the 
tongue  and  see  if  there  are  several  hard  lumps  there 
about  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut.  These  are  the  swollen 
glands  and  in  connection  with  the  discharge  from  the 
nose  indicate  the  possibility  of  glanders.  Sometimes 
when  the  disease  is  quite  advance^  the  nose  will  bleed 
more  or  less,  which  is  in  itself  a  suspicious  matter.  Be 
careful  in  investigating  the  nostrils  that  the  animal  does 
not  snort  or  blow  into  your  face.  Veterinarians  are  un- 
usually cautious  in  handling  this  disease  and  when  about 
it,  especially  in  looking  into  the  nose,  will  wear  heavy 
rubber  gloves  and  a  mask  to  protect  the  face  and  eyes. 
The  gloves  should  be  carefully  washed  after  using  in  a 
2  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  water. 

In  farcy  the  little  buds  or  buttons  that  appear  are 
similar  to  small  boils  with  a  discharge  of  sticky  yellow 
matter  of  the  consistency  of  the  white  of  an  egg  and  like 
heavy  castor  oil  in  appearance.  These  sores  will  often 
run  for  some  time  and  then  heal  over,  only  to  break  out 
on  some  other  part  of  the  animal.  The  harness  or  blank- 
ets which  touch  these  sores  become  infected  and  carry 
the  disease  to  other  horses  which  may  use  the  same  ar- 
ticles. 

Where  the  animal  is  thought  to  be  suffering  from 
glanders  it  should  be  at  once  separated  from  all  other 
horses  or  animals,  fed  separately,  watered  in  a  separate 


DISEASES  OF   HORSES  319 

bucket  and  every  piece  of  harness  that  has  touched  it, 
ropes,  halters,  bridle,  blankets,  neckyokes  and  especially 
curry  combs  and  brushes,  should  be  carefully  washed  in 
a  5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Whitewash  the 
stalls  and  all  about  the  stable  where  infected  animals 
have  been  with  5  per  cent  of  carbolic  acid  in  the  white- 
wash. A  clear  wash  will  be  as  good  but  the  whitewash 
shows  wherever  it  has  been  used,  and  thus  aids  in  mak- 
ing the  work  cover  every  bit  of  the  exposed  surface. 

Unscrupulous  horse  dealers  do  more  crooked  work 
with  glandered  horses  than  any  other  disease  from  which 
horses  suffer.  An  animal  with  the  disease  will  be  doc- 
tored up  and  worked  off  on  the  first  innocent  purchaser, 
although  in  many  of  the  states  there  are  severe  penal- 
ties for  such  tricks.  There  is  a  certain  test  for  glanders 
called  the  Mallein  test,  in  wrhich,  by  means  of  an  injec- 
tion under  the  skin  on  the  animal's  neck,  an  experienced 
veterinarian  can  determine  with  great  certainty  from 
the  reaction,  whether  or  not  the  animal  is  diseased.-? 
When  a  horse  is  suspected,  do  not  buy  it  until  it  has 
been  so  tested  and  where  it  is  already  your  property 
have  it  tested  yourself. 

But  above  all  beware  of  the  man  who  calls  it  "fearcy" 
and  says  it  is  curable. 


L^ 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

INSECT  PESTS. 

Insect  Pests. — There  are  three  varieties  of  flies  which 
bother  range  animals  throughout  the  West.  First  in 
the  list  is  the  little  black  horn  fly  (Hoematobia  serrata) 
so-called  because  of  its  habit  of  settling  in  great  masses 
on  an  animal's  head  about  the  base  of  the  horns.  The  top 
of  the  withers  is  also  a  favorite  camping-place  for  them. 
They  are  so  persistent  in  their  blood-sucking  attacks  that 
often  the  base  of  the  horn  will  be  all  raw  and  sore. 

These  flies  were  first  noticed  in  the  United  States  in 
1887  in  New  Jersey  and  later  in  Maryland  and  Virginia. 
They  are  well  known  in  Europe  and  were  doubtless  im- 
ported from  there  either  in  dry  hides  or  on  live  cattle. 
The  report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  for  1887  men- 
tions them  as  new  arrivals.  Now  they  are  to  be  found 
all  over  the  United  States. 

Like  all  flies,  they  breed  in  horse  or  cow  manure,  and 
little  can  be  done  to  prevent  their  increase.  Gentle 
cattle,  like  milk  cows,  may  be  protected  from  their  attacks 
by  using  fish  or  train  oil  as  an  emulsion  to  be  sprayed 
over  the  animals  or  daubed  on  with  a  swab.  There  are 
several  kinds  of  patent  mixtures  on  the  market  intended 
for  this  purpose ;  most  of  them  are  based  on  fish  oil  and 
a  slight  amount  of  carbolic  acid.  These  are  all  good  and 
sprayed  over  the  animals  every  day  will  relieve  them  of 
an  immense  amount  of  worry.  This  is  especially  true  of 

320 


INSECT    PESTS  321 

milk  cows,  whose  supply  of  milk  is  noticeably  increased 
when  the  spray  is  used  on  them. 

Another  fly  pest  is  the  common  screw  worm  fly 
(Compsyomia  macellaria),  a  good-sized  fly  with  a  bluish 
green  body  and  a  red  front  to  its  head.  It  lays  its  eggs 
in  any  place  where  the  slightest  spot  of  blood  is  to  be 
found.  The  eggs  hatch  very  rapidly,  often  in  an  hour, 
yielding  "screw  worms."  On  many  ranges  great  care 
has  to  be  taken  in  branding  calves,  lest  they  get  screw 
worms  in  the  wound  made  by  the  burning.  If  a  round- 
up in  the  mountains  is  followed  by  a  rainy  spell,  almost 
every  calf  that  was  branded  will  have  to  be  caught  and 
doctored,  or  else  it  will  be  eaten  up  by  the  worms. 

If  the  wound  is  not  too  deep,  and  in  a  place  where  she 
can  reach  it,  the  mother  will  cure  it  with  her  rough 
tongue.  Frequently  fresh-born  calves  become  infected 
about  the  navel  and  die  because  the  worms  working  inside 
the  body  cannot  be  reached  by  the  cow.  A  rainy  season 
appears  greatly  to  increase  the  attacks  from  screw 
worms  and,  as  a  general  thing,  it  is  dangerous  to  brand 
calves  in  the  higher  ranges  during  the  rainy  season.  In 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region  this  is  usually  during  July 
and  August. 

There  are  several  patented  preparations  for  killing 
screw  worms,  and  on  ranges  where  they  are  known  to  be 
bad  every  rider  carries  a  bottle  of  one  of  them  in  his 
saddle  pockets,  ready  to  care  for  any  animal  he  m#y  run 
across  on  the  range.  The  animal  must  be  roped  and 
thrown,  and,  by  means  of  a  little  wooden  paddle,  every 
worm  is  dug  out  that  can  be  reached;  then  the  wound 
is  filled  with  the  medicine,  which  kills  any  worms  left, 
heals  the  sore  and  keeps  the  flies  from  again  depositing 
their  eggs  in  it.  Any  of  the  ordinary  sheep  dips  will 


322  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


The   Heel   Fly    (Hyporderma   Lineata). 

kill  screw  worms.  Chloroform  is  often  used,  although 
it  is  very  severe  in  its  action.  An  animal  suffering  from 
screw  worms  can  generally  be  identified  by  the  little 
trickle  of  pale  watery-looking  blood  that  discharges  from 
the  wound. 


INSECT    PESTS 


323 


Heel  flies  (Hypoderma  bovis — H.  Lineata).— These 
flies  do  an  immense  amount  of  damage  to  cattle,  both 
domestic  and  range,  every  year.  They  are  also  locally 
known  as  "hot"  flies  and  "warble  flies."  They  are  about 
half  an  inch  long  and  resemble  ordinary  honey  bees.  In 
March  a  rider  will  see  a  bunch  of  cattle  all  "shaded  up" 
under  a  bank  or  a  tree  and  standing  quietly.  Suddenly 


A    Bogged    Down    Cow    Overlooked    by    the    "Bog    Riders." 

out  darts  a  cow,  tail  and  head  high  in  the  air,  a  wild  look 
in  her  eyes  and  kicking  out  viciously  with  her  heels. 
She  charges  at  full  speed  for  the  nearest  waterhole,  into 
which  she  plunges  as  deep  as  she  can.  It  is  "heel  fly" 
season  in  that  vicinity  and  many  an  old  weak  cow  finds 
her  final  resting  place  in  some  sticky  mudhole,  driven 
there  to  escape  the  attacks  of  this  fly,  too  weak  to  drag 
herself  out  again. 


324  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

The  supposition .  is  that  the  heel  flies  sting  animals 
on  the  heels  or  hind  legs.  They  also  trouble  horses  but 
seem  to  attack  them  only  in  front,  and  a  horse  will  strike 
out  vigorously  with  his  front  feet  and  go  almost  crazy 
over  a  single  fly.  Time  after  time  have  men  placed  their 
hands  where  the  heel  flies  could  strike  them,  but  I  never 
knew  anyone  to  be  stung  or  feel  the  least  pain  or  prick- 
ing from  the  touch. 

The  heel  fly  is  known-  to  fame  as  the  fly  that  brings 
the  great  "warble  grub"  in  the  backs  of  cattle.  There 
are  many  skeptics  as  to  the  warble  part.  The  activities 
of  the  heel  or  bot  fly  are  confined  to  depositing  its  little 
yellow  eggs  on  animals.  These  one  can  easily  find,  as 
they  are  deposited  on  the  hairs  of  the  shoulder  or  neck 
and  chest  just  back  of  the  shoulder,  low  down  on  the 
ribs.  From  there  they  are  taken  into  the  animal's  mouth, 
as  it  licks  itself.  It  would  seem  that  the  instinct  of  the 
insect  led  it  to  lay  the  eggs  in  those  places  which  can  be 
most  easily  reached  by  the  animal's  tongue. 

Once  in  the  animal's  body,  the  egg  hatches  out,  and 
the  grub  works  its  way  through  the  flesh  and  finally 
locates  under  the  hide  and  between  it  and  the  flesh  on 
the  back,  generally  forward  of  and  between  the  hip 
bones  and  shoulder  blades.  There  it  rests,  growing 
rapdily,  finally  forcing  a  little  hole  through  the  hide,  out 
of  which  it  eventually  passes  and  drops  to  the  ground. 
The  grubs  can  readily  be  discovered  by  feeling  over  the 
animal's  back  for  the  lumps  which  they  form.  With  a 
little  pressure  on  either  side  of  a  lump  the  grub  will  pop 
out  of  its  resting-place  through  the  little  hole,  doubtless 
very  much  to  their  host's  relief.  By  means  of  an  ordi- 
nary oil  can,  such  as  is  used  by  mechanics,  a  little  tur- 
pentine or  coaloil  squirted  into  the  hole  will  also  destroy 
the  grub. 


INSECT    PESTS  325 

It  took  scientific  men  a  long  time  to  convince  stock- 
men that  this  is  the  way  the  huge  warble  grub  finds  its 
way  under  the  hide  of  a  steer  or  cow,  and  there  are  those 
who  yet  doubt  it  and  believe  that  the  grubs  are  deposited 
directly  in  the  animal's  back  by  a  large  horse  fly,  almost 
an  inch  long,  that  is  found  all  over  the  country,  and 
which  has  a  bite  like  a  pair  of  red-hot  pincers.  But  the 
scientists  did  not  make  the  statement  until  they  had  care- 
fully investigated  and  studied  the  subject,  and  felt  very 
sure  of  their  deductions.  The  tiny  hole  made  by  the 
warble  grub  is  estimated  to  cost  stockmen  millions  of 
dollars  every  year  through  the  injury  to  hides  resulting 
from  the  holes,  and  apparently  there  is  no  practical  way 
to  prevent  the  loss,  so  far  as  range  stock  is  concerned. 

Western  stockmen  believe  very  generally  that  many  a 
sore-backed  horse  obtained  the  start  for  its  trouble 
through  a  warble  in  its  back,,  which  grew  there  while 
the  animal  was  not  being  used,  and  then  when  saddled 
up  it  quickly  developed  into  a  bad  sore.  The  scientists 
believe,  however,  that  the  heel  fly  develops  the  warble 
only  on  cattle  and  not  on  horses. 

In  the  high  mountains  of  the  West,  "deer"  or  "green 
head"  flies  make  life  miserable  for  all  four-footed  animals 
for  a  few  weeks  in  the  hot  weather  each  year.  Fortu- 
nately they  thrive  only  in  dry  weather  and  with  the  first 
rains  are  gone.  June  is  generally  the  worst  month  for 
them,  and  during  that  time  all  grazing  animals,  both  wild 
and  domestic,  lose  flesh  rapidly  because  they  cannot  feed 
or  rest,  utilizing  nearly  all  their  energy  fighting  flies 
from  daylight  until  dark.  Saddle  animals  or  milk  stock 
can  be  protected  by  any  of  the  fish  oils  rubbed  or  sprayed 
over  them. 

Take  a  piece  of  bacon   rind   in   the  morning  as   you 


326  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

saddle  up,  and  rub  your  horse's  head,  shoulders  and 
neck  with  it,  if  you  have  not  the  regular  prepared  oil  to 
use,  and  the  flies  will  give  him  peace  for  that  day.  Some 
horses  suffer  more  than  others  from  their  attacks,  a  white 
animal  seeming  to  be  an  especial  object  of  their  atten- 
tions. On  the  round-ups  or  in  pastures  where  horses 
are  running  loose,  a  fire  of  green  wood  that  makes  a 
heavy  smoke  will  bring  every  animal  in  from  feeding  to 
stand  in  the  very  thickest  of  the  smoke  all  day  long  and 
thus  obtain  some  slight  relief  from  the  pests.  A  dark- 
ened shed  or  stable  will  also  give  them  much  protection. 
The  Indians  always  keep  a  smudge  fire  burning  during 
the  fly  season  in  the  mountains  to  protect  their  ponies. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST. 

No  book  on  the  western  stock  business  would  be  com- 
plete without  some  mention  of  the  various  kinds  of 
animals  which  prey  on  the  stockman's  herd.  While  each 
class  of  stock  suffers  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  the 
sheepman  is  probably  the  heaviest  loser.  It  is  impossible 
of  course  to  accurately  estimate  the  losses  caused  by 
such  animals,  but  it  is  scarcely  stating  it  too  broadly  to 
say  that  each  year  the  stockraisers  of  the  United  States 
suffer  a  financial  loss  of  more  than  $5,000,000  from  this 
source.  These  figures  were  obtained  by  taking  an  aver- 
age of  the  known  losses  from  such  animals  in  specific 
cases  and  thus  securing  definite  information  as  to  the 
damage  done  by  the  various  animals.  For  example,  a 
conservative  estimate  made  by  well-posted  stockmen 
places  the  damage  done  by  each  full-grown  wolf  at  $1,000 
per  year;  for  a  coyote,  $100. 

Coyotes.— In  1911,  6,487  coyotes  and  241  wolves,  as 
well  as  hundreds  of  bear,  bob  cats  and  the  like,  were 
killed  by  forest  officers  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
various  National  Forests  in  the  United  States,  whose 
area  covers  perhaps  about  one-third  of  the  grazing  lands 
in  the  West.  Probably  three  times  this  number  were 
killed  by  private  parties  during  the  same  time. 

The  predatory  animals  of  the  United  States  are 
coyotes,  wolves,  bear,  wild  cats  or  bob  cats,  mountain 
lions  (cougars),  and  lynxes.  Of  these  the  coyote  is  far 

327 


328  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

and  away  the  worst  enemy  of  the  stockraiser.  More- 
over, it  is  not  repulsed  by  civilization,  as  are  the  other 
animals  in  this  class. 

The  settling  up  of  a  country  generally  leads  to  the 
rapid  extinction  of  almost  all  the  wild  animals,  unless 
they  are  carefully  guarded  by  law.  The  coyote,  on  the 
contrary,  rather  enjoys  the  coming  of  the  settler,  makes 
himself  very  much  at  home  with  him,  raises  its  young 


The  Camp  of   Two   Government  Hunters  in  the  Boise  National   Forest. 

right  under  his  nose  and,  in  spite  of  bounties,  poison  and 
traps,  manages  to  increase.  In  the  spring,  it  follows 
the  sheepmen's  herds  up  into  the  mountains,  there  to 
prey  on  the  little  lambs  or  even  the  older  ewes.  In  the 
fall  it  comes  down  with  them  and  winters  close  to  the 
farmer's  feedlot  and  chicken  coops,  or  moves  along  to 
the  winter  ranges  of  the  sheep. 

The  coyote  takes  an  occasional  meal  at  the  cattle- 
man's expense  too,  when  it  finds  a  small  calf  lying  under 
the  shelter  of  some  bush,  where  it  has  been  left  by  its 


PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST 


329 


mother  while  she  grazes  or  goes  to  water.  But  the 
sheepman's  lambs  and  the  farmer's  poultry  are  the 
coyote's  chief  sources  of  food.  The  animal  is  a  good 
feeder  and,  when  other  provender  is  not  to  be  had,  will 
hunt  jack  rabbits  or  prairie  dogs.  Some  years  ago  Cali- 
fornia paid  a  bounty  of  $5  per  head  on  coyotes  with 
the  result  that  over  75,000  scalps  were  turned  in  to  the 


BRBHK 


A  Coyote  in  a  Trap. 

state  authorities  within  the  first  year.  Then  the  law 
was  repealed  by  a  unanimous  vote.  In  a  year  or  two 
California  farmers  began  to  complain  of  the  increasing 
numbers  and  depredations  of  the  jack  rabbits.  Careful 
investigations  by  well-posted  men  proved  beyond  doubt 
that  the  increase  of  jack  rabbits  was  largely  due  to  the 
decrease  of  their  greatest  enemy,  the  coyote.  Thus  na- 
ture seems  to  maintain  a  balance  between  the  species. 


330  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

The  coyotte  breeds  rapidly,  the  average  litter  being 
between  six  and  nine  each  year. 

Wild  Cats  and  Lynxes. — Next  to  the  coyote  the  wild 
cat  and  lynx,  commonly  known  as  "bob  cats,"  cause 
sheepmen  much  loss.  Unlike  the  coyote  these  animals 
seem  to  kill  for  the  pure  lust  of  blood-shedding.  In  an 
Arizona  sheep  camp  some  years  ago  a  single  wild  cat 
killed  ninety  sheep  in  one  night.  None  of  them  was 
eaten  or  injured  beyond  having  the  throat  torn  open  by 
the  sharp  teeth  of  a  cat,  which  was  treed  by  the  dogs 
early  the  next  morning,  and  killed. 

Wild  cats  and  lynxes  are  easily  exterminated  both  by 
traps  and  by  hunting  them  with  dogs.  They  are  not 
dangerous  animals,  and  I  have  seen  quite  as  many  killed 
by  being  chased  into  trees  and  there  knocked  out  by 
rocks  and  clubs  and  beaten  to  death  as  in  any  other  way. 

Wolves  and  Mountain  Lions. — These  animals  do  more 
damage  to  cattle  and  horses  than  to  any  other  class  of 
domestic  animals.  Neither  of  them  seems  to  prefer  the 
taste  of  mutton  but  both  are  fond  of  horse  flesh  and  beef. 
There  are  places  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  where, 
due  to  the  inroads  of  lions,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
raise  horses  on  the  open  ranges,  as  the  lions  kill  the 
young  colts  as  fast  as  they  are  born. 

The  lion  is  very  shy  in  its  way,  keen  of  scent,  hard  to 
trap,  but  rather  easy  to  capture  with  hounds.  Its  prin- 
cipal diet  when  available  consists  of  colts  and  deer. 
They,  too,  like  the  rest  of  the  cat  family,  are  cowardly 
and  will  not  fight,  unless  cornered. 

The  wolf,  however,  is  the  most  dangerous  enemy  of 
the  cattleman.  Like  wild  cats,  wolves  seem  to  kill  for 
the  pure  lust  of  blood,  as  well  as  for  food.  I  have  known 
a  single  male  wolf  to  kill  sixteen  yearlings  in  one  night 


PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST  331 

in  a  northern  New  Mexico  pasture.  Not  one  of  the 
animals  was  touched,  the  wolves  doing  no  injury  except 
to  tear  the  body  somewhere  to  let  out  blood  to  lap.  The 
wolf  is  one  of  the  hardest  of  the  wild  animals  to  capture, 
either  by  traps  or  poison.  The  ingenuity  of  the  animal 
in  evading  traps  set  by  the  most  experienced  trappers, 
or  poison  placed  with  the  greatest  care  and  cunning,  is 


"The   Lion   is   Difficult   to   Trap  But   Easy   to   Capture   with  Hounds." 

almost  beyond  belief.  Wolves  will  travel  the  roughest 
places  so  as  to  leave  no  trail,  while  their  scent  is  so  keen 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  place  a  trap  or  poisoned 
baits  without  leaving  some  scent  of  the  trapper  that  they 
will  detect  and  profit  by. 

Fortunately  the  wolf,  unlike  the  coyote,  does  not  thrive 
with  civilization,  and  with  the  settling  up  of  the  country 
it  gradually  declines  in  numbers  until  but  few  are  left. 
In  such  circumstances  they  are  unusually  keen.  They 


332  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

will  travel  in  pairs,  often  going  twenty-five  miles  in  a 
night  to  make  a  kill,  and  return  to  their  dens  before  day- 
light. A  pair  of  wolves  located  in  the  breaks  along  the 
Red  River  in  northern  New  Mexico  some  years  ago  and 
raided  on  the  cattle  for  twenty-five  miles  in  every  direc- 
tion. At  first  from  the  damage  done  it  was  supposed 
there  was  a  large  band  of  them,  but  eventually  by  the 
trails  it  was  determined  that  there  could  not  be  more 
than  four  of  them  at  the  most.  Every  stockman  in  the 
region  was  on  the  lookout.  The  orders  given  to  the  cow- 
boys were  to  drop  everything,  no  matter  how  important 
it  might  be,  and  go  after  that  bunch  of  wolves,  if  ever 
they  were  sighted.  Besides  the  territorial  reward  of  $20 
the  stockmen  offered  $100  extra  for  each  grown  wolf 
scalp  taken  in  that  country,  with  $10  for  every  pup. 

Poison  was  scattered  over  the  whole  country  until 
about  all  the  dogs  within  reach  had  been  killed.  Traps 
were  set  in  every  trail  and  wash  wherever  the  wolves 
had  left  a  footprint,  and  the  few  dogs  not  poisoned  were 
some  of  them  caught  in  the  many  traps  which  decorated 
the  landscape.  Finally  one  of  the  most  experienced 
"wolfers"  in  the  whole  region  was  called  from,  some  dis- 
tance to  try  his  hand. '  He  spent  a  week  studying  the 
country,  sitting  for  hours  on  top  of  the  high  peaks  watch- 
ing with  a  powerful  glass  every  moving  thing  below 
him.  The  first  peep  of  daylight  found  him  up  on  some 
cliff  or  peak  listening  for  the  howl  of  a  wolf.  Finally 
one  day  about  sunset  he  drove  a  burro  down  into  a  small 
flat  below  a  cliff  and  shot  it,  then  he  rode  up  to  the  body 
of  the  burro  and  dropping  a  piece  of  dry  rawhide  on  the 
ground  stepped  with  the  utmost  care  from  his  horse  to 
the  hide.  He  drew  on  his  hands  a  pair  of  new  buckskin 
gloves  and  with  his  knife  cut  from  the  burro's  hind 


PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST  333 

quarter  a  piece  of  flesh.  To  several  of  these  pieces  he 
tied  with  a  light  thread  about  six  inches  long  a  dose  of 
strychnine  done  up  in  tissue  paper.  His  idea  was  that 
the  wolf  was  able  to  detect  the  smell  or  taste  of  the 
poison  when  placed  in  the  meat,  but  by  wrapping  it  in 
tissue  paper  and  then  attaching  it  to  the  bait  it  would 
follow  the  meat  down  the  animal's  throat  with  none  of 
the  bitter  taste  of  the  poison,  and  thus  get  clear  down 
into  the  stomach. 

When  poison  was  placed  in  the  meat  he  believed  the 
animal  tasted  it  as  it  went  down  and  was  able  to  eject 
it  before  it  reached  the  stomach.  All  this  time  he  did  not 
leave  the  piece  of  hide  or  touch  a  thing  that  was  not 
absolutely  necessary.  Having  arranged  everything  to 
his  satisfaction,  he  mounted  his  horse,  stooped  down  and 
took  up  the  piece  of  hide  and  left  the  place.  The  next 
morning  at  daylight  we  found  the  dead  wolf  not  fifty 
yards  from  the  burro.  It  was  the  male  and  the  trapper 
spent  three  days  more  locating  its  partner.  She  was 
finally  found  in  a  den  so  situated  that  after  traveling  over 
a  trail  for  some  time  she  could  step  off  onto  a  rocky 
ledge  and  then  drop  off  a  little  bench  to  where  she  had 
found  a  lair  so  nicely  hidden  that  even  within  ten  feet 
it  was  hard  to  see. 

Having  located  her  den  he  watched  from  a  safe  dis- 
tance and  shot  her  as  she  came  in  from  a  foraging  expe- 
dition with  a  jack  rabbit  for  her  little  ones.  In  the  den 
we  found  twelve  pups,  two  of  which  were  taken  to  the 
ranch  and  raised  on  milk.  They  became  the  most  play- 
ful of  pets. 

These  two  old  wolves  were  known  to  have  gone 
twenty-five  miles  in  a  night  to  make  a  killing.  That  they 
were  the  evil-doers  was  proved  by  the  fact  that  with 


334  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

their  extermination  the  losses  of  cattle  in  that  vicinity 
from  wolves  ceased. 

The  average  litter  of  a  wolf  is  between  eight  and  ten, 
so  that  they  increase  with  tremendous  rapidity,  if  al- 
lowed to  breed. 

Bears. — Bruin,  which  is  probably  considered  one  of  the 
worst  of  all  predatory  animals,  is  more  the  victim  of  a 
bad  name  than  of  its  own  acts.  While  there  are  cases 
where  bears  are  responsible  for  the  death  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  as  a  general  thing,  considering  their  numbers,  they 
do  not  do  any  great  damage.  Here  and  there  a  bear 
will  be  found  that,  like  a  sheep-killing  dog,  has  learned 
the  taste  of  mutton  or  pork,  and  makes  heavy  forays  on 
the  stockman's  herd. 

Occasionally  a  cow  will  be  found  deep  in  some  moun- 
tain canyon  which,  by  the  signs,  has  undoubtedly  been 
pulled  down  by  some  bear,  and  a  few  mouthfuls  taken 
from  her  flank  or  legs ;  but  these  are  individual  cases  and 
not  general.  The  sheepman  is  often  damaged  by  a  bear 
that  comes  snuffing  about  the  corral  some  night,  more 
likely  looking  for  something  in  the  camp  than  anything 
else.  Its  strong  animal  odor  fills  the  air  and  the  fright- 
ened sheep  stampede  across  the  pen  and  pile  up  in  their 
mad  rush  and  smother  one  another. 

It  is  unfair  to  class  the  bear  as  a  predatory  animal  in 
any  sense,  especially  the  black  and  brown  bear,  which 
do  little  harm  either  to  man  or  beast,  beyond  robbing 
some  camper's  outfit  of  sugar  and  bacon.  Apart  from 
the  giant  grizzly,  the  average  western  stockman  does  not 
believe  in  classing  bear  as  pests  to  be  slaughtered  as  fast 
as  possible,  but  he  is  willing  to  have  them  preserved 
and  hunted  as  game  animals. 

The  grizzly  is  of  course  a  dangerous  animal,  to  be 


PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST  335 

avoided  unless  one  is  ready  for  a  fight;  hence,  it  should 
be  exterminated  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

Trapping  and  Poisoning  Predatory  Animals. — For 
wolves  or  mountain  lions  the  best  trap  is  a  double 
spring  No.  4,  witfi  an  extra  heavy  chain ;  for  coyotes  and 
wild  cats  a  No.  3  will  be  strong  enough.  The  best  re- 
sults will  be  obtained  if  the  trap  is  not  fastened  to  a 
stationary  object  but  to  some  heavy  block  of  wood  or 
a  rock.  If,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  country  it  is 
best  to  fasten  it  to  some  stationary  object,  there  should 
be  a  swivel  in  each  end  of  the  chain,  lest  the  animal  in 
its  turning  and  twisting  winds  itself  up  untirthe  chain 
is  all  tied  up  and  there  is  more  or  less  possibility  of  the 
captured  animal  escaping. 

If  a  clog  is  used,  wire  the  chain  to  it  by  taking  some 
light  wire  like  a  piece  of  No.  12  or  14  telephone  wire,  or 
even  baling  wire,  passing  each  round  of  the  wire  through 
the  link  of  the  chain  and  about  the  clog,  so  it  will  not 
slip  off.  Fewer  animals  will  escape  from  traps  fastened 
to  a  movable  object  than  to  something  stationary.  The 
trail  left  by  the  drag  is  easily  followed,  and  even  if  the 
clog  eventually  gets  caught  in  some  tree  root  or  brush, 
the  animal  by  that  time  has  become  so  tired  that  it  is 
unable  to  make  much  of  a  struggle  to  escape. 

Beaver,  mink  and  muskrat  and  other  similar  animals 
will  gnaw  their  feet  off  to  escape,  unless  the  trap  is  set 
so  as  to  pull  them  into  deep  water  as  they  struggle  and 
thus  drown.  I  believe  none  of  the  larger  animals,  like 
wolves,  coyotes  or  cats,  will  do  this. 

Traps  should  always  be  set  so  that  the  animal  in  order 
to  reach  them  must  approach  from  a  certain  side;  that  is, 
by  setting  it  with  a  log  or  stone  at  the  rear,  or  between 
two  logs,  so  placed  that  the  trap  is  at  the  sharp  end  of 


336  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

a  V,  or  in  a  trail  where  it  passes  between  two  stumps 
or  stones,  so  that  the  animal  must  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions pass  over  it.  If  a  bait  is  used  do  not  place  it  on 
the  ground ;  hang  it  up  so  that  the  animal  as  it  approaches 
will  naturally  be  looking  up  and  thus  take  no  notice  of 
what  has  been  placed  so  cunningly  for  it  to  step  into. 
For  bait  a  freshly-killed  rabbit  or  young  chicken,  prairie 
dog  or  almost  any  wild  bird  split  open  and  hung  over 
the  trap  will  be  satisfactory.  Many  trappers  use  no  bait 
at  all  but  depend  entirely  on  scent  to  bring  the  animal 
to  the  trap.  The  scent  excites  them  and  they  paw  and 
dig  about  the  trap  and  finally  get  caught. 

Set  the  trap  flush  with  the  ground,  burying  the  chain 
and  everything  of  a  metal  nature  so  as  not  to  be  visible. 
Spread  a  small  piece  of  paper  or  a  few  leaves  over  the 
pan  of  the  trap,  and  then  sprinkle  enough  soft  dirt  care- 
fully over  it  to  cover  it.  A  handful  of  soft  grass  will 
answer  the  purpose  also.  Leave  everything  about  the 
trap  in  as  near  its  original  condition  as  possible.  Don't 
spit  on  the  ground,  smoke  or  throw  cigarette  stubs  about 
the  vicinity. 

If  the  trap  is  set  near  to  the  house  see  that  the  dogs 
are  tied  up  carefully ;  also  the  house  cats.  It  is  astonish- 
ing how  far  afield  these  domestic  animals  will  go,  espe- 
cially in  the  country.  I  once  knew  the  pet  milk  cow  at 
a  ranch  to  be  caught  by  the  tongue  in  a  huge  trap  set 
for  a  mountain  lion.  A  handful  of  grass  was  strewn  over 
the  trap  and  it  is  supposed  she  was  attracted  by  the 
scent  used  or  by  the  grass,  and  in  licking  about  the  spot 
her  tongue  touched  off  the  trap  and  she  was  captured. 
The  chase  she  led  the  boys  with  the  trap  fast  to  her 
tongue  and  a  twenty-five  pound  club  dragging  over  the 
ground  and  the  fight  that  followed  when  they  tried  to 


PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST  337 

take  the  trap  off  will  never  be  forgotten.  Moreover,  by 
the  time  she  was  discovered  she  was  distinctly  "on  the 
prod"  and  had  to  be  roped  and  tied  down  before  she 
could  be  relieved  of  her  unwelcome  burden.  Her  tongue 
was  badly  lacerated  but  she  eventually  recovered. 

Scents. — Many  professional  trappers  use  scents  of 
various  kinds  to  attract  animals.  Several  scents  are 
manufactured  and  for  sale  by  druggists  and  others,  but 
the  average  trapper  makes  his  own  from  some  formula 
to  which  he  ascribes  great  virtues. 

One  of  the  commonest  methods  of  making  a  scent  is 
by  taking  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  like  a  fruit  jar,  and 
placing  in  it  a  piece  of  beef  or  meat  of  almost  any  kind 
as  large  as  one's  fist.  Set  the  bottle  in  a  warm  place, 
out  of  the  rays  of  the  sun  for  two  or  three  weeks,  until 
thoroughly  decayed ;  keep  the  top  on  to  retain  all  the 
odor  from  the  decaying  meat,  opening  it  occasionally  to 
let  the  gases  escape;  then  add  a  quart  of  sperm,  or 
neat's  foot  oil,  or  any  animal  oil  that  is  available.  The 
oil  made  from  half  a  dozen  fat  prairie  dogs  is  unusually 
good  for  this  purpose.  Skin  them  and  try  out  the  fat 
in  a  fry  pan;  to  this  add  one  ounce  of  pulverized  assa- 
foetida  and  one  ounce  of  castoreum  or  the  common 
musk,  sold  in  drugstores  for  perfumery.  Oil  of  anise  is 
also  good. 

Many  trappers  take  the  bladder  from  a  female  coyote 
or  wolf  and  use  its  contents  in  the  mixture,  believing  it 
unusually  attractive  to  the  animals.  Bottle  this  mixture 
and  use  it  in  a  smaller  bottle  when  needed.  After  setting 
the  trap  scatter  the  scent  about  the  place  by  means  of 
a  little  stick  or  straw  so  as  to  get  it  on  the  ground  near, 
but  not  directly  on  the  trap,  as  the  first  thing  an  animal 
does  is  to  roll  in  the  scent  and  thus  it  might  set  the  trap 
off  and  not  get  caught. 


338  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Poison. — The  only  poison  that  is  successful  with  such 
animals  is  pure  sulphate  of  strychnine.  A  dose  large 
enough  to  kill  a  coyote  or  wolf  is  easily  measured  by 
taking  the  large  blade  of  a  pocket  knife  and  thrusting  it 
into  the  bottle  of  poison.  What  will  easily  ride  on  the 
end  of  the  blade,  say  for  half  an  inch,  will  be  sufficient 
for  the  purpose  and  not  enough  to  cause  the  animal  to 
vomit. 

Strychnine  is  bitter  to  the  taste  and  must  if  possible 
be  placed  so  as  to  get  into  the  animal's  stomach  before 
the  taste  is  detected,  otherwise  it  is  rejected. 

There  are  several  ways  of  preparing  baits.  Fat  bacon 
cut  into  inch-squares  makes  an  excellent  bait.  Fresh 
liver,  kidney  or  meat  of  any  kind,  cut  into  pieces  some- 
what larger,  will  do,  but  these  are  apt  to  soak  up  the 
bitter  taste  of  the  poison  and  not  be  quite  so  efficient. 
Take  these  pieces  of  meat  and  with  a  knife  open  a  little 
pocket  hole  down  into  the  center  of  the  piece.  Into 
this  slip  the  poison  and  carefully  close  up  the  gap.  One 
of  the  most  successful  plans  is  to  dip  each  bait  into  a 
pot  of  hot  beef  tallow,  which  gives  it  a  coating  that 
effectually  covers  the  bitter  taste  of  the  poison  and  is 
also  very  attractive  to  the  animal. 

If  you  desire  to  make  a  "drag"  to  toll  the  animal  to  the 
trap  or  poison,  make  a  bucketful  of  these  baits  and, 
having  procured  a  piece  of  old  beef,  a  fresh  raw  hide,  or 
killed  a  jack  rabbit  and  split  it  open,  or  even  take  an  old 
coat,  or  banket,  and  dose  it  well  with  the  scent,  fasten 
it  to  a  saddle  rope  and,  mounting  a  horse  or  riding  in 
a  wagon,  pull  the  drag  behind  on  the  ground.  Drop  a 
bait  occasionally  where  the  animal  following  up  the 
scented  trail  will  find  it.  In  making  the  "drag"  it  is 
well  not  to  follow  a  road  or  trail  but  Bather  to  cut  across 


PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST  339 

several  trails  and  roads,  as  the  coyote  is  specially  fond 
of  following  down  a  trail  in  the  soft  dust  and  coming  to 
the  scent  will  immediately  turn  off  and  take  it  up. 

Make  drags  so  they  can  be  followed  the  next  day,  and 
you  will  probably  pick  up  a  dead  animal  or  two.  Some- 
times the  animals  will  drop  inside  of  ten  feet  and  again 
they  will  go  a  long  distance.  It  is  due  no  doubt  to  the 
condition  of  the  animal's  stomach.  If  the  stomach  is 
full  when  the  poison  is  eaten  it  acts  much  slower  than 
when  it  is  empty. 

Where  domestic  animals  are  likely  to  be  caught  the 
baits  should  be  dropped  at  certain  places^and  carefully 
gathered  up  the  next  morning  by  count,  to  be  sure  none 
is  left  out.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  get  a  mountain 
lion  to  take  a  bait  of  any  kind.  A  young  colt  is  the 
most  attractive  bait  to  it.  If  a  foal  can  be  found  freshly 
killed,  by  poisoning  it  in  various  places  and  also  making 
a  few  baits  from  the  flesh  and  dropping  them  on  and 
near  the  body,  one  may  catch  the  lion.  But  it  is  very 
shy  and  wary  of  either  traps  or  poison,  due  probably 
to  its  exceedingly  keen  sense  of  smell. 

Prairie  Dogs. — These  may  not  be  called  predatory 
animals  in  any  sense  of  the  word,  but  as  they  are  a  range 
pest  and  do  a  lot  of  damage  each  year  to  the  stock  in- 
terests they  may  as  well  be  considered  under  this  head 
as  anywhere  else.  Probably  there  is  no  other  animal  in 
the  region  west  of  the  Missouri,  that  attracts  more  atten- 
tion from  those  new  to  the  country  than  these  little 
animals.  Yards  of  rubbish  have  been  written  about 
them;  how  they  divide  up  their  residences  in  the  earth 
with  owls  and  rattlers;  how  a  village  of  them  is  a  sure 
sign  of  water  below  the  ground,  because,  forsooth,  "they 
must  have  water  and  so  dig  for  it."  Certainly  it  is  true 


340  WESTERN/GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

that  one  of  the  common  sights  in  a  dog  village  is  an  owl, 
generally  one"  of  the  small  species,  perched  on  top  of  the 
dirt  thrown  out  by  the' dogs.  Again,  it  is  even  more 
true  that  many  a  rattler  is  found  in  the  holes  or  prowling 
about  in  the  vicinity,  of  the  villages.  They  are  there, 
however,  not  as  welcome  guests,  but  like  the  lion,  "seek- 
ing whom  they  may  devour.."  In  this  case  it  is  the  young 
dogs  they  are  after.  Both  rattlers  and  other  snakes  find 
many  a  meal  in  the  prairie  dog  holes,  when  the  young 
dogs  are  small  enough  to  capture. 

Anothef  venerable  story  about  prairie  dogs  is  the  one 
which  endows  them  with  the  wisdom  to  watch  a  snake 
crawl  into  a  hole  and  then  push  dirt  in  the  entrance  with 
their  noses  and  thus  seal  his  snakeship  up  in  a  tomb, 
the  victim  of  his  own  gluttony.  I  have  carefully  watched 
a  dog  hole  for  hours  to  see  if  anything  happened  when 
a  rattler  crawled  lazily  down  into  it.  All  that  did  happen 
was  the  hasty  scuttling  out  of  the  dogs  which  were 
caught  in  the  place  and  their  taking  up  a  position  on 
a  nearby  mound  and  hurling  all  sorts  of  unkind  remarks 
at  their  unwelcome  visitor  in  their  little  piping  voices. 
As  to  any 'efforts  made  to  secure  revenge,  there  were 
none,  nor  do  I  believe  it  was  ever  done. 

As  for  the  water  theory  (and  I  have  heard  old-timers 
vouch  for  its  truth),  there  appears  to  be  absolutely  no 
foundation  for  it.  Prairie  dogs  use  but  little  water.  Like 
rabbits,  they  secure  what  moisture  they  need  from  the 
roots  and  grasses  on  which  they  feed,  and  can  go  for 
days  without  any  actual  drinking.  If  one  will  only  stop 
to  think  one  will  recall  many  a  village  located  on  spots 
where  from  the  very  nature  of  the  country,  an  under- 
lying layer  of  rock  for  instance,  water  could  never  be 
found  by  even  the  most  improved  methods  of  well  dig- 


3* 

O     rt- 

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Hi1 


342  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

ging.  Moreover,  hole  after  hole  has  been  dug  out  with 
great  care,  and  as  a  usual  thing  they  seldom  go  down 
into  the  ground  beyond  four  feet  and  some  of  them  not 
more  than  two  and  a  half.  The  dogs  show  considerable 
ingenuity  or  instinct,  however,  in  the  digging  of  their 
holes.  Almost  all  of  them  are  so  constructed  that  the 
nest  in  which  the  young  are  born  is  some  higher  than 
the  lowest  place  in  the  tunnel  leading  down  to  it ;  that  is, 
the  dogs  dig  down  for  some  distance  and,  turning  the 
tunnel  up  a  little,  probably  a  foot,  the  bore  is  widened 
out  into  a  little  room  or  chamber  where  the  nest  is  lo- 
cated. If  this  is  done  for  anything  at  all  it  is  done  to 
give  the  water  that  naturally  runs  down  into  the  holes  a 
chance  to  settle  and  not  drown  them  out. 

Another  piece  of  work  which  is  creditable  to  their  in- 
stinct is  the  banking  up  of  their  mounds  after  a  heavy 
rain.  No  sooner  has  a  rain  ceased  than  the  whole  village 
is  at  work  chattering  and  barking  like  a  lot  of  children 
at  play.  With  their  noses  and  front  paws  they  roll  up 
little  balls  of  wet  earth,  pushing  them  ahead  up  the 
mound.  Using  their  noses  for  trowels  much  as  a  beaver 
does  his  tail,  they  skillfully  plaster  the  wet  earth  about 
the  entrance  so  as  to  raise  the  walls  and  repair  any 
damage  done  by  the  storm.  When  the  mud  has  dried 
the  print  of  their  little  noses  and  feet  where  they  have 
patted  it  into  shape  and  molded  it  together  is  plainly 
seen.  Any  one  who  has  lived  in  a  Mexican  village  will 
recall  seeing  the  old  women  and  boys  at  this  very  same 
sort  of  work  after  a  rainstorm.  Like  the  dogs,  as  soon 
as  it  has  cleared  off  out  they  come  and,  using  the  mud 
made  by  the  rain,  they  roll  up  little  balls  and  proceed  to 
patch  up  the  adobe  walls  where  the  rain  has  eaten  into 
them.  Like  the  dogs  they  also  keep  up  a  constant  chat- 
tering and  gabbling. 


PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST  343 

The  ravages  of  the  prairie  dog  on  a  range  are  well 
known.  The  experts  of  the  United  States  Biological 
Survey  after  a  careful  study  of  the  question  estimate 
that  250  dogs  will  consume  as  much  grass  as  one  cow 
and  32  will  equal  one  sheep.  The  effect  of  their  work 
is  easily  seen  about  any  of  their  villages,  for  the  grass 
and  everything  living  is  cleared  off  for  some  distance 
around  each  hole  as  if  done  with  a  hoe.  As  soon  as  one 
vicinity  is  well  cleaned  up,  the  dogs  migrate  to  a  fresh 
spot,  thus  carrying  their  devastation  over  a  wide  range. 
On  such  a  spot  the  grass  comes  back  very  slowly.  There 
is  a  short  wiry  grass  which  comes  first,  known  locally 
as  prairie  dog  grass  (Aristida  fasciculata),  which 
nothing  will  eat  except  when  the  leaves  are  young  and 
tender.  In  time,  however,  with  a  few  good  years  of 
rainfall,  the  cleared  spaces  about  the  village  again  re- 
seeds  and  eventually  the  old  grasses  come  into  their 
own. 

I  know  of  one  such  place,  a  pasture  covering  several 
thousand  acres,  where  all  the  dogs  were  poisoned  out, 
and  in  about  eight  years  the  grasses  had  all  reseeded 
and  the  range  was  quite  as  good  as  ever,  barring  the 
holes,  which  were  still  there — pitfalls  for  the  unwary  cow 
ponies.  Of  late  years  stockmen  have  given  the  question 
of  the  extermination  of  these  pests  much  attention. 
Down  in  the  Texas  Panhandle  the  situation  became  so 
bad  that  the  stockmen  set  to  work  to  clean  them  out. 
After  a  few  experiments  it  was  found  that  it  could  be 
easily  done  through  the  agency  of  poisoned  wheat.  The 
state  of  Kansas  also  took  hold  of  the  matter,  and  in  two 
or  three  years  spent  about  $100,000  fighting  the  dogs. 
Whole  counties  there  were  almost  useless  for  stock- 
grazing  purposes,  while  damages  to  farmers  were  almost 


344  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

as  great.  The  result  of  the  campaign  was  that  the  ranges 
were  practically  cleared  of  prairie  dogs,  and  with  a  little 
watching  they  have  not  again  obtained  any  foothold 
worth  mentioning. 

The  prescription  given  here  for  the  preparation  and 
use  of  the  poison  for  this  work  has  been  used  all  over 
the  West,  both  by  stockmen  and  the  United  States  For- 
est Service.  With  wheat  at  $1  a  bushel  and  strychnine 
at  the  same  price  per  ounce,  the  cost  of  this  poison  by  the 
bushel  will  be  around  $5.  A  bushel  of  wheat  will  make 
about  4,000  doses. 

Poison  for  Killing  Prairie  Dogs. — For  one  bushel  of 
wheat  take  3  ounces  of  sulphate  of  strychnine ;  y2  pound 
of  cyanide  of  potassium;  1  teaspoonful  of  oil  of  anise, 
and  2  quarts  of  molasses.  (The  heavy  New  Orleans  mo- 
lasses is  the  best.)  Put  the  strychnine  into  one  can  and 
the  cyanide  into  another;  add  one  quart  of  water  to 
each ;  put  over  fire  and  bring  to  a  boil,  stirring  so  that  it 
will  dissolve.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  inhale  the 
fumes  of  the  cyanide.  The  strychnine  will  seldom  dis- 
solve completely.  Pour  the  two  into  a  can  large  enough 
easily  to  hold  two  gallons;  add  two  quarts  of  molasses; 
put  on  the  fire  and  bring' to  a  boil.  Set  off,  allow  it  to 
cool  a  few  minutes,  pour  in  oil  of  anise  and  stir  thor- 
oughly. Then  pour  the  mixture  over  the  wheat  a  little 
at  a  time,  stirring  the  grain  as  you  pour  the  mixture  over 
it,  so  that  every  individual  grain  will  be  coated.  Set  it 
aside  for  a  couple  of  hours  to  dry,  put  in  boxes,  barrels 
or  sacks,  and  use  as  desired.  If  it  is  to  be  hauled  or 
shipped,  use  double  sacks  to  avoid  danger  of  leakage. 
A  few  quarts  of  bran  or  cornmeal  scattered  in  the  wheat 
as  it  is  stirred  will  keep  the  grains  from  sticking  to- 
gether or  balling  up. 


PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST  345 

Do  not  think  when  you  start  in  that  this  mixture  will 
not  go  over  a  bushel,  for  you  will  find  it  ample.  An  iron 
tub  to  mix  the  wheat  in  or  a  box  such  as  plasterers  use 
in  which  to  mix  plaster  is  most  satisfactory.  Stir  it 
with  a  shovel,  mixing  it  carefully  through  and  through, 
as  you  pour  in  the  mixture.  Be  careful  where  you  put 


Distributing   Prairie   Dog    Poison. 

the  wheat  after  this.  Pet  horses,  pigs  and  any  number 
of  chickens  have  been  killed  by  leaving  the  tub  exposed 
with  the  wheat  in  it.  After  you  are  all  through,  take  an 
ax  and  chop  up  every  utensil  used  excepting  the  shovel 
and  burn  them,  so  as  to  make  sure  they  will  never  be 
used  again  for  other  purposes. 


346  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

The  best  time  to  use  the  poison  is  in  February,  March 
and  April.  The  dogs  are  then  hungry  and  will  eat  any- 
thing. As  soon  as  green  grass  comes  they  are  not  so 
apt  to  eat  the  wheat.  The  best  plan  for  using  it  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Take  a  light  wagon  as  a  base  of  supplies;  put  into  it 
about  four  bushels  of  wheat;  drive  out  on  the  range  and, 
beginning  at  a  definite  point,  work  a  regular  system  of 
covering  the  country.  The  driver  can  leave  his  team  in 
the  middle  of  a  thickly  settled  village  and,  taking  a 
bucket  and  teaspoon,  drop  a  spoonful  at  each  hole,  from 
one  to  three  feet  away,  and  always  on  the  same  side 
of  the  hole.  This  prevents  duplication  of  doses.  The 
rest  of  the  party  on  horseback,  each  with  a  bucket  of 
wheat  and  spoon,  rides  rapidly  from  hole  to  hole  in  the 
scattered  places,  working  up  to  certain  trails,  roads  or 
other  natural  boundaries.  It  is  surprising  how  rapidly 
one  can  cover  a  country.  One  can  keep  a  horse  on  a 
good  jog  trot  and  fire  the  wheat  with  unerring  aim  at 
the  holes  and  not  stop  moving  unless  the  holes  are  too 
thick. 

Nothing  seems  to  be  gained  by  placing  the  wheat  in 
the  holes,  as  from  experience  in  its  use  the  dogs  seldom 
eat  it  when  thrown  inside  the  holes.  A  most  convenient 
way  to  carry  the  wheat  for  this  work  is  to  take  a  gunny- 
sack  and  sling  it  over  the  right  shoulder,  resting  it  on 
the  left  hip;  then  slip  a  ten-pound  lard  bucket  into  it 
in  which  to  carry  the  wheat.  This  leaves  the  left  hand 
to  guide  the  horse,  and  the  right  to  use  the  spoon.  Three 
men  can  easily  put  out  four  bushels  a  day,  or  16,000 
holes.  They  work  across  the  country  and  back,  just  as 
a  farmer  would  sow  wheat.  Sometimes  stakes  set  up  for 
guides  are  of  assistance.  Select  a  period  of  pleasant 


PREDATORY  ANIMALS  IN  THE  WEST  347 

weather  if  possible,  as  wet  snow  or  rain  weakens  the 
poison.  It  acts  at  once.  Dead  dogs  have  been  found  in 
thirty  minutes  from  the  time  the  poison  was  distributed. 
You  will  find  lots  of  them  on  the  ground  and,  of  course, 
the  largest  number  are  dead  in  the  holes.  You  may  also 
get  a  number  of  skunks  and  badgers. 

In  a  month  after  a  storm  ride  over  the  country  again 
and  whenever  you  find  signs  of  the  dogs  leave  a  fresh 
dose  and  you  will  surely  get  them.  It  is  well  to  watch 
the  ranges  during  the  summer,  and  a  year  later  work 
over  the  same  area,  and  with  another  dose  spot  the 
holes  that  show  signs  of  occupancy. 


CHAPTER  XKI. 
SADDLE  HORSES  ON  THE  RANGE. 

In  selecting*  a  horse  for  range  work  one  must  be 
guided  more  or  less  by  the  nature  of  the  country  in 
which  it  will  be  used,  and  the  weight  it  is  expected  to 
carry.  If  intended  for  mountain  work  with  considerable 
climbing  up  rough  steep  trails,  to  carry  a  man  weighing 
more  than  160  pounds,  the  horse  should  weigh  not  less 
than  950  pounds.  A  good  all-round  weight  is  1,050 
pounds  in  good  flesh.  For  work  on  an  open  prairie 
country  an  animal  of  less  weight  w;ll  be  satisfactory. 

One  of  the  toughest  little  cow  ponies  I  ever  knew 
weighed  but  850  pounds  when  hcg-fat,  but  he  could 
climb  the  steepest  mountain  and  carry  the  heaviest  man 
equal  to  any  horse  in  the  outfit,  and  he  kept  it  up  till 
he  was  21  years  old,  when  he  was  honorably  retired. 

A  small  light-weight  htfrse  will  not  knock  himself  out 
in  the  knees  so  soon  as  a  heavy  animal  will.  He  will 
also  pick  up  more  quickly  on  the  range,  get  about  better 
with  hobbles  and  take  less  feed  to  keep  in  equal  con- 
dition. 

Type  of  Horse  for  Range  Work. — For  general  all- 
round  range  work,  on  every  kind  of  country  and  taking 
his  chances  for  feed  as  he  hobbles  about  at  night  after 
the  day's  ride,  get  a  short-coupled,  round-barreled  ani- 
mal, with  good  stocky  legs,  the  front  pair  coming  out  of 
his  body  wide  enough  apart  to  give  him  plenty  of  chest 

348 


SADDLE    HORSES   ON   THE   RANGE  349 

room,  a  short  neck,  clear  kindly  eyes  with  plenty  of 
room  between  them,  small  well-set  ears,  broad  open  nos- 
trils, withers  not  more  than  an  inch  higher  than  the 
hips,  hips  well-rounded,  not  sloping  down  like  the  steep 
roof  of  a  house,  tail  carried  high  and  coming  out  of 
the  body  well  up  on  his  hips,  hoofs  solid  and  well  shaped 
and  not  taking  more  than  a  number  one  shoe,  weighing 
fat  between  875  and  1,000  pounds,  not  pigeon-toed — for 
such  horses  stumble — any  color  he  happens  to  be,  with 
a  good  flat-footed  walk,  a  square  trot  and  a  free  easy 
lope.  He  should  be  not  more  than  eight  nor  less  than 
four  years  old,  and  his  back  should  be  free  from  old 
saddle  sores,  bare  scars,  or  "set  fasts."  Do  not  let  the 
seller  assure  you  that  such  places  are  all  healed  up  and 
will  never  be  any  trouble,  for  they  will.  A  scar  on  a 
horse's  back  where  the  hair  is  gone  will  always  be  liable 
to  break  out  into  a  sore  place  any  time  the  conditions 
are  just  right. 

I  do  not  say  that  a  horse  without  some  of  these  points 
will  not  be  a  useful  animal  but  these  are  the  things 
which  the  young  buyer  wants  to  look  for  and  the  more 
he  gets  of  them  the  better  horse  he  will  have. 

In  the  age  matter,  no  horse  can  be  well  broken  to  range 
work  before  he  is  four  years  old,  and  every  year  after 
he  passes  eight  is  just  that  much  gone  from  his  best 
age.  So  by  getting  between  these  one  will  secure  the 
best  there  is  in  his  horses.  Look  also  to  his  tongue,  lest 
at  some  time  a  heavy  bit  has  cut  it  half  in  two,  so  he 
feeds  with  difficulty. 

Gaits. — Some  men  will  pay  fancy  prices  for  pacing 
horses  because  on  a  smooth  road  they  will  shuffle  along 
at  a  good  rate  and  carry  their  riders  easier  than  at  a 
trot.  On  a  rough  trail,  however,  or  over  a  broken  coun- 


350  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

try  they  are  constantly  stumbling,  owing  to  the  way 
they  carry  their  feet,  that  is,  close  to  the  ground.  A 
man  riding  a  pacer  over  a  rough  piece  of  road  must 
be  mighty  even  tempered  or  he  will  be  everlastingly 
engaged  in  a  "horse  fight,"  until  every  time  the  poor 
animal  stumbles  it  will  break  and  run  in  expectation  of 
being  "worked  over,"  as  the  cowboy  says. 

A  man  riding  a  pacer  at  the  head  of  a  line  of  mounted 
men  can  certainly  deal  them  an  immense  amount  of 
misery.  The  pace  he  sets  is  just  a  little  too  fast  for 
them  to  keep  up  on  a  walk  and  not  quite  fast  enough 
.to  let  them  trot,  and  thus  they  are  continually  alter- 
nating between  the  gaits.  For  range  work  a  horse  that 
will  strike  a  good  flat-footed  walk  and  make  about  five 
miles  an  hour  is  worth  a  corral  full  of  pacers. 

A  good  rider  can  train  his  horse  greatly  to  improve 
his  walking  gait  by  forcing  him  on  a  tight  rein  until  he 
breaks  into  a  trot.  The  instant  he  does  this,  pull  him 
down  to  the  walk  again.  By  continually  crowding  him 
with  the  spurs  and  holding  him  carefully  in  hand  just 
at  the  breaking-point,  he  will  soon  learn  the  fox  trot 
trick  and  unless  very  tired  will  always  take  it  of  his 
own  accord.  A  little  patience  along  this  line  and  one 
can  make  a  gaited  horse  out  of  almost  any  horse. 

In  testing  out  a  horse,  see  how  he  jumps  out  from  a 
dead  standstill,  a  slow  walk  and  a  trot  into  a  lope.  If 
he  has  been  well  trained  for  cow  work  he  should,  when 
struck  sharply  with  the  quirt  or  spurs,  and  feeling  his 
rider  lean  slightly  forward,  jump  into  a  good  lope  right 
from  a  walk.  He  should  pull  down  from  a  dead  run  to 
a  standstill  in  not  more  than  twice  his  own  length, 
stopping  on  his  hind  feet.  With  a  very  slight  pressure 
on  his  neck  from  the  bearing  rein  he  should  swing  round 


SADDLE    HORSES   ON   THE   RANGE  351 

on  his  heels  like  some  racing  yacht  with  the  helm  hard 
down  and  be  off  the  other  way  with  a  dash  the  instant 
the  reins  are  eased  up,  his  side  feels  the  touch  of  quirt 
or  spur  and  the  body  of  his  rider  bends  forward  over 
the  horn. 

When  the  reins  are  thrown  over  his  head  to  the 
ground,  he  should  stand  there  as  if  hitched.  If  he  does 
not,  wrap  the  reins  about  one  of  his  front  feet  so  as  to 
hold  his  head  down  and  keep  him  from  stepping.  This 
will  educate  him  to  stand.  Sometimes  a  spoiled  horse 
will  hang  his  head  to  one  side  so  that  the  reins  drag 
free  from  his  feet  and  thus  travel  off  and  leave  his  rider 
in  the  lurch.  It  is  hard  to  break  a  horse  of  this  trick 
and  the  best  way,  when  you  can  not  tie  him,  is  to  slip 
the  reins  through  one  stirrup  and  from  there  to  the  horn. 
Tie  them  there  just  so  that  the  weight  of  the  stirrup 
keeps  his  head  on  one  side  and  he  can  not  travel  but  in 
a  circle,  and  a  horse  wise  enough  to  play  the  first  trick 
will  soon  learn  that  he  is  helpless  when  thus  fastened, 
and  stand  still.  Also  teach  him  to  stand  still  as  you  go 
to  mount  until  you  are  firmly  in  the  saddle,  and  have 
given  the  signal  to  move  off. 

Learn  to  mount  your  horse  like  a  cavalryman  or  cow- 
boy. Do  not,  with  one  hand  on  the  horn  and  the  other 
on  the  cantle,  clamber  up  into  the  saddle  as  if  you  were 
getting  into  a  farm  wagon.  Stand  just  in  front  of  the 
horse's  shoulder,  facing  the  rear;  take  the  reins,  drawn 
up  fairly  tight,  so  as  to  steady  the  animal,  and  a  lock 
of  the  horse's  mane  in  your  left  hand.  With  the  right 
hand  take  the  stirrup  and  turn  it  to  you  far  enough  so 
you  can  put  your  toe  into  it.  Then  grasp  the  horn  with 
your  right  hand  and  swing  up  into  the  saddle  with  a 
quick  movement.  If  your  horse  is  restless  and  not  in- 


352 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


clined  to  stand,  his  forward  lurch  will  set  you  into  the 
saddle  all  the  easier.  By  this  method  of  mounting  you 
are  in  command  of  the  horse  at  all  times,  and  do  not 
have  to  let  go  with  the  right  hand  just  at  the  critical 


•I 


u 


An  Awkward  Way  to  Mount. 

time,  as  is  the  case  when  a  man  mounts  with  one  hand 
on  the  horn  and  one  on  the  cantle. 

In  dismounting  as  a  preliminary  learn  to  always  draw 
your  left  foot  back  in  the  stirrup  so  as  to  leave  only  the 
toe  in  it.  This  will  save  you  from  being  dragged  some 


SADDLE    HORSES   ON   THE   RANGE 


day  when  a  nervous  horse  catches  you  with  one  foot  on 
the  ground  and  the  other  hung  to  the  heel  in  a  close 
stirrup.  As  a  general  rule  ride  with  your  feet  clear  in 
to  the  heels,  but  on  a  trot  it  will  ease  you  greatly  to  slip 
your  foot  back,  so  that  the  ball  of  the  foot  rests  on  the 


The  Proper  Way  to  Mount — "Ready  to  Swing  Into  the  Saddle." 

stirrup  and  takes  up  the  jar  with  a  sort  of  spring  in  the 
foot. 

On  a  fast  trot  lean  forward  in  your  stirrups,  standing 
clear  of  the  saddle,  and  place  a  hand  on  the  mount's 
mane,  so  as  to  steady  and  keep  you  on  the  balance. 
This  eases  the  horse  and  rests  the  rider.  Notice  how 
the  jockeys  ride  their  racing  mounts;  they  lean  away 
forward,  standing  up  in  their  stirrups.  Ride  from  your 


354  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

knees  and  thighs;  that  is,  hug  the  saddle  with  them, 
using  the  knee  as  if  it  were  a  ball  and  socket  joint 
fastened  tight  to  the  saddle. 

Learn  to  ride  this  way  and  you  will  never  have  any 
trouble  with  your  trousers  working  up  above  the  knees, 
as  happens  to  most  beginners. 

If  your  knees  and  legs  tire,  turn  slightly  in  the  saddle, 
resting  your  body  on  the  flat  of  the  thigh,  one  foot  re- 
maining in  the  stirrup,  the  knee  slightly  bent,  and  let 
the  tired  foot  hang  free  for  a  while.  This  takes  the 
"kinks"  out  of  the  knees  and  ankles  of  a  beginner  and 
helps  even  an  old  rider. 

The  American  Saddle  Horse. — The  true  American 
saddle  horse  dates  back  to  1839.  In  that  year  Denmark, 
a  Thoroughbred  stallion  whose  sire  was  an  imported 
English  Thoroughbred,  was  crossed  with  several  well- 
bred  Kentucky  mares.  This  was  the  foundation  of  the 
American  saddler,  and  the  Denmark  strain  has  come 
down  through  successive  generations  and  is  as  jealously 
guarded  by  the  Kentucky  breeders  as  the  Arabs  guard 
the  breeding  of  their  horses.  The  Thoroughbred  is  sim- 
ply a  highly  developed  racing  machine,  with  but  one 
gait,  while  the  saddle  horse  is  a  many-gaited  animal. 
The  average  Kentucky  saddler  weighs  about  1,050 
pounds  and  is  \5l/>  or  15%  hands  high,  bred,  built, 
trained  and  used  exclusively  as  a  saddler. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

HORSE  EQUIPMENT  FOR  RANGE  WORK. 

To  the  beginner  the  question  of  saddle,  bridle,  bit  and 
spurs  is  a  momentous  one.  Shall  be  buy  a  saddle  with 
a  horn  or  ride  a  "muley"?  Shall  he  have  a  "center-fire" 
or  a  "rimfire"?  Shall  it  be  a  Texas  or  a  California  tree? 


The   Low   Horn   Texas   Tree,    Weight, 
40  Founds. 


The  Swelled  Fork  Tree. 


Shall  it  have  the  huge  eagle-billed  "tapaderos"  of  the 
Pacific  Coast  or  the  simple  narrow,  iron  stirrup  of  the 
Texan  ? 

Saddles. — There  are  but  two  types  of  saddles  to  be 
considered :  the  McClellan  or  Government  saddle,  and 
the  western  stock  saddle.  The  former  weighs  from  nine 

355 


356 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


to  fourteen  pounds;  the  latter  thirty  to  fifty.  Each  has 
its  merits,  but  for  the  use  of  a  forest  ranger,  or  for  stock 
purposes  the  stock  saddle  is  undoubtedly  the  better. 
The  horn  offers  a  handy  place  for  hanging  things,  to 
say  nothing  of  roping,  while  the  skirting  protects  from 
contact  with  a  sweaty  horse  any  coat  tied  behind.  Then 
the  high  cantle  and  pommel  make  the  seat  much  easier 
especially  in  traveling  over  a  rough  country. 


The  McClellan  or  Government  Type  of 
Saddle. 


The  High  Horn  California  Visalia 
Type. 


As  for  the  rigging,  the  question  of  single  cinch  or 
"center  fire,"  vs.  double  rig  or  "rim  fire,"  is  one  that 
"starts  something"  every  time  it  is  discussed  about  a 
western  campfire.  The  "double  rig"  is  a  Texas  trade- 
mark, while  the  Californian  is  the  defender  of  the  single 
cinch.  Both  sides  will  quarrel  over  this  matter  for 
hours  and  neither  convince  the  other.  The  Texan 
swears  there  are  more  sore-backed  horses  in  one  Cali- 


HORSE    EQUIPMENT    FOR    RANGE    WORK  357 

fornia  county  than  in  all  Texas,  and  the  Californian 
knows  to  a  certainty  that  "every  double  rig  saddle  cov- 
ers a  kidney  set  fast  as  big  as  a  biscuit."  The  truth  is 
that  there  are  plenty  of  single  rig  saddles  that  fairly 
"eat  up"  horses'  backs,  while  on  the  other  side  there 
are  as  many  double-rigged  saddles  doing  the  same  thing. 
In  my  judgment,  apart  from  the  question  of  roping,  both 
rigs  are  on  the  same  footing  in  this  matter. 

In  roping  on  a  single  cinch  saddle  the  tendency  when 
the  rope  is  straight  out  in  front  or  behind  is  to  tip  the 
tree  up  on  end  and  dig  it  either  into  the  animal's  kidneys 
or  withers.  This  does  not  occur  with  a  dotible-rig  sad- 
dle. 

For  use  in  a  rough  country  there  is  certainly  no  com- 
parison between  the  two  styles.  The  double-rig  saddle 
"stays  put"  all  day  long,  even  on  a  comparatively  loose 
cinch,  while  the  single-rig  cinch  must  be  pulled  up  until 
the  animal  is  fairly  cut  in  two,  and  yet  at  every  hill  the 
rider  must  stop  to  reset  his  saddle.  The  Californian 
will  meet  this  by  arguing  that  it  is  hard  on  the  horse 
to  keep  the  saddle  in  the  same  place,  and  hence  to  change 
it  frequently  relieves  his  back.  But  as  between  a  single- 
cinch  and  a  double-rig  when  it  comes  to  general  range 
work,  just  buy  a  double-rig  saddle  weighing  not  over 
thirty-two  pounds  and  neither  you  nor  your  horse  will 
regret  it. 

To  my  mind  the  low  Texas  tree  known  as  the  Fries- 
seke  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  California  tree  of  the  Vis- 
alia  type,  with  its  sky-scraping  four-inch  horn.  Stop 
and  think  for  a  moment  of  the  immense  purchase  it 
brings  to  bear  in  roping.  In  the  high  arch  Visalia  tree 
the  rope  with  a  1,000-pound  steer  dancing  at  the  end  of 
it  is  probably  seven  or  eight  inches  above  the  animal's 


358 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


withers.  In  the  low  Texas  tree  it  is  not  over  four,  mak- 
ing a  tremendous  difference  in  the  leverage  against  the 
animal  in  a  side  or  even  an  end-pull.  No  wonder  they 
have  to  stand  in  one  stirrup  to  keep  the  single-rig  high- 
horned  tree  from  turning  onto  the  horse's  side  when  the 
strain  comes  on  the  rope. 


1.   Spanish  Spade  Bit.     2.   Spanish  Ring  Bit.      (Both  are  brutal  and  of  no  practi- 
cal value  in  stopping  a  horse.)     3.  A  Modified  Spanish  Bit  That  is 
First   Class   For   All    Work. 

Being  California-bred,  with  five  years'  army  experi- 
ence in  a  Government  saddle,  and  finally  twenty  years  on 
a  range  where  a  man  could  not  use  a  single-cinch  saddle 
and  hold  his  job,  I  feel  competent  to  compare  them  all. 

Bits  and  Bridles. — The  California  vaquero  rode  with  a 
heavy  silver-mounted  spade  bit  with  a  huge  burr  or  rol- 
ler in  it  which  made  music  when  the  horse  rolled  it  with 
his  tongue.  These  were  and  are  an  abomination.  They 


HORSE   EQUIPMENT   FOR   RANGE   WORK  359 

were  needlessly  cruel  and  no  more  able  to  check  a  head- 
strong "bull-necked"  horse  than  an  ordinary  cavalry  bit. 
Moreover,  if  a  horse  fell  with  one,  the  great  sharp  spade 
sticking  up  in  the  roof  of  his  mouth  frequently  cut 
him  badly,  and  I  have  known  at  least  two  fine  cow  ponies 
to  bleed  to  death  from  such  accidents. 

A  good  solid-made  bit  with  a  U  in  it  not  over  two  in- 
ches at  the  best,  with  a  burr  or  roller  if  one  cares  for 
it,  and  with  shanks  about  five  inches  long,  is  good  enough 
for  any  rider  to  use. 

For  reins  there  is  plenty  of  choice.  If  you  will  once 
break  yourself  in  to  the  use  of  them,  "open"  reins  are 
the  best;  that  is,  the  two  reins  are  not  tied  together  or 
fastened  at  the  ends.  The  advantage  of  this  is  that  if 
you  are  running  and  your  horse  falls  with  you,  the  reins 
drop  to  the  ground  of  their  own  accord  and  the  animal 
stops;  while  tied  reins  frequently  hang  up  over  the  ani- 
mal's neck  and  away  he  goes.  Again,  in  dismounting, 
in  a  hurry  you  simply  drop  your  reins  as  you  go  down 
instead  of  stopping  to  strip  them  over  his  head.  It  is 
a  little  trouble  at  first  to  learn  to  handle  open  reins  but 
once  done  you  will  never  tie  a  knot  in  your  reins  again. 

Blankets. — Have  enough,  and  not  too  much.  Too  much 
is  likely  to  scald  a  horse's  back.  Any  loosely-woven 
wool  blanket  like  the  Navajo  Indian  blanket,  folded  so 
as  to  be  about  two  inches  thick,  will  do.  The  point 
is  to  keep  the  saddle  blankets  clean.  One  of  the  best 
ways  is  to  wear  a  gunnysack  between  the  animal  and  the 
blanket.  A  heavy  coffeesack  is  the  best  but  an  ordinary 
burlap  grainsack  opened  at  the  seams  will  do.  This 
takes  up  the  sweat  and  dirt  from  the  horse  and  when 
dirty  can  be  thrown  away  and  a  new  one  procured  al- 
most anywhere. 


360  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

A  sore-backed  horse  is  one  of  the  worst  things  pos- 
sible to  use  and  heal  up  the  sore  at  the  same  time.  In 
this  matter  the  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  the  pound 
of  cure  every  time.  One  of  the  easiest  ways  to  insure 
a  sound  back  is  to  throw  a  few  cupfuls  of  cold  water  on 
his  back  when  you  strip  the  saddle  off,  loosening  up  the 
hair  so  that  water  and  air  will  get  through  it.  If  you 
are  near  a  stream  or  spring  give  the  back  a  good  wash- 
ing, so  that  all  the  sweat  and  heat  is  taken  out.  This 
process  also  gives  you  early  notice  of  an  approaching 
sore  spot. 

In  saddling,  slip  your  left  hand  under  the  arch  of  the 
saddle  between  the  horse  and  the  blankets  as  you  place 
it  on  the  horse,  and  give  the  blankets  a  little  lift  so  that 
they  are  clear  from  the  withers;  then  when  the  saddle 
is  cinched  down,  the  blankets  do  not  pinch  the  withers 
as  the  tree  settles  down  over  them. 

Rope. — Always  carry  a  grass  or  sisal  rope  about  thirty 
feet  long.  You  may  not  want  to  rope  anything  with  it 
but  a  rope  is  always  handy  on  the  range,  no  matter 
what  your  business.  The  old  days  of  the  sixty-foot 
rawhide  "riata"  are  pretty  well  gone.  For  ordinary  use 
in  roping,  a  three-eighths 'hard  twisted  Manilla  or  sisal 
rope  will  do  the  best  work.  If  you  are  wise  you  will 
learn  to  rope  with  the  rope  tied  "hard  and  fast  to  the 
nub"  instead  of  trying  to  "take  your  dallies"  or  turns 
about  the  horn.  This,  like  the  question  of  saddles,  is 
something  over  which  much  campfire  talk  is  wasted.  To 
the  Californian  it  seems  like  inviting  instant  death  to 
tie  the  rope.  Per  contra,  the  Texan  cannot  understand 
how  a  man  can  take  the  turns  and  keep  his  fingers  clear 
from  the  entanglements  of  the  rope. 

Each  is  a  matter  of  education.  With  your  rope  tied 
you  are  free  from  all  bother  in  getting  the  turns  at  the 


HORSE   EQUIPMENT    FOR   RANGE    WORK  361 

right  time.  All  you  have  to  do  is  to  manage  your  horse 
and  keep  the  rope  clear  from  his  feet.  Occasionally 
there  will  be  a  "mix  up,"  your  horse  gets  a  leg  over  the 
rope  and  then  something  is  doing  in  the  vicinity.  At 
the  end  of  the  deal,  however,  if  the  rope  is  strong  you 
will  come  out  of  it  with  the  animal  still  swinging  to  the 
end  of  the  rope.  In  the  same  circumstances  the  Cali- 
fornian  or  "dally-welta"  (Spanish-English  for  "dar  la 
Vuelta,"  "give  the  turns")  man  will  be  minus  a  sixty- 
foot  riata  which  has  "gone  yonderly"  with  the  steer.  I 
have  seen  many  more  men  hurt  by  taking  their  turns 
than  by  "tying  'em  hard  and  fast." 

To  tie  your  rope  about  the  horn  so  it  will  never  pull  up 
tight,  and  can  be  immediately  cast  off  with  the  very  least 
slack,  take  the  knot  end  in  your  right  hand,  and  the 
loose  end  in  your  left;  pass  the  knot  end  around  the 
horn,  bring  it  back  across  the  running  or  loose  end  on 
top,  then  back  under  and  take  one  twist  around  itself, 
leaving  the  knot  on  the  end  under  the  rope  between  it 
and  the  horn.  By  drawing  it  up  against  the  horn  the 
knot  will  jam  or  bind  between  the  rope  and  the  horn 
so  it  cannot  slip  out,  no  matter  how  great  the  pull,  and 
yet  the  instant  the  pull  is  eased  off  plenty  of  slack  can 
be  had  to  get  the  knot  out  and  "turn  her  loose." 

A  tie  made  this  way  can  never  pull  up  tight  enough 
that  it  will  not  easily  slip  off  when  the  need  occurs. 
Some  men  tie  a  regular  loop  in  the  end  of  their  ropes, 
made  just  large  enough  to  slip  over  the  horn.  This  is 
dangerous,  as  it  is  apt  to  hang  on  something  as  you  are 
using  the  rope  on  foot  and  catch  a  spur  or  your  hand. 

Spurs  and  Quirts. — Excepting  in  roping,  one  can  get 
more  out  of  a  tired  horse  with  a  good  cowboy  quirt  than 
with  a  pair  of  spurs.  The  quirt  wakes  him  up,  does  not 


362 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


cut  the  skin  and  makes  a  more  effective  instrument  for 
getting  a  quick  move  out  of  a  horse.  On  a  tired  horse 
a  man  with  a  pair  of  spurs,  especially  the  "pet-maker" 
kind,  is  very  likely  to  keep  "jabbing"  all  day  long  until 
at  night  he  is  surprised  to  find  he  has  worn  the  hide  and 


1.   Spanish   Spur,     Silver    Inlaid.     2.   A   Good  Sensible    Spur.      3.    The   0.    K.   or 
Petmaker  Spur.     4.  The   "Buzz  Saw." 

hair  off  in  each  side  where  the  spurs  have  dug.  Some 
horses  seem  to  get  used  to  the  constant  touching  up 
and  finally  ignore  it  altogether. 

Hobbles  (Hopples). — When  knocking  about  on  the 
range,  depending  on  the  grass  for  horse  feed,  don't  carry 
along  heavy  leather  hobbles.  Instead,  buy  a  piece  of  or- 
dinary Y*>  y%  or  ^-inch  sisal  rope.  Throw  this  in  your 
pack,  and  at  night  when  ready  to  "hobble  out"  unstrand 
it  about  five  feet  back.  Most  cowboys  measure  around 
their  waists  once  and  about  two  feet  over,  which  is  lib- 
eral for  almost  any  horse.  With  unusually  large  or  un- 
dersized horses,  this  measure  may  have  to  be  changed  a 
little,  and  this  is  easily  done  by  the  knot. 


HORSE   EQUIPMENT   FOR   RANGE    WORK 


363 


Take  a  single  strand,  double  it  and  tie  the  ends  to- 
gether in  a  common  knot,  just  as  a  woman  ties  the  knot 
in  her  thread.  Stoop  down,  throw  the  knot  end  around 
the  off  front  leg  of  your  horse,  bringing  the  knot 


The  First  Step  in  Hobbling:     "Around  the  Off  Front  Leg,  Bringing  the  Ends  Even 
in   the   Hands." 

and  loop  end  back  even  in  your  hands,  and  twist  one 
about  the  other,  generally  four  or  five  times.  Leave 
enough  to  go  snugly  around  the  near  leg,  and  fasten  on 
the  outside. 


364 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


To  fasten,  slip  the  knot  end  through  the  loop  end  from 
the  inside  out,  then  lay  it  over  and  alongside  the  lower 
strand  of  the  loop,  passing  it  up  between  the  strand  and 
the  animal's  leg,  coming  out  between  the  two  strands 
of  the  loop  end.  This  will  hold  it  effectually,  and  is  easi- 
ly unfastened  the  next  morning  when  the  rope  is  wet, 
frozen  or  covered  with  mud. 

Tie  each  horse's  hobble  about  his  neck  as  you  take  it 
off,  and  he  will  carry  it  there  all  day,  or,  when  you  reach 


The  Second  Step   in   Hobbling:   Twist 
One  About  the  Other  Four  or 

Five  Times.  < 


The   Third  Step  in  Hobbling. 


camp,  it  can  be  taken  off  and  thrown  into  the  pack  or 
wagon.  If  the  horse  is  not  used  to  hobbles,  and  there 
is  a  tendency  to  skin  his  legs,  place  them  above  the 
fetlocks  one  night  and  below  the  next.  If  he  is  mean 
to  run  off  with  the  hobbles  "side  line"  him  also  by  the 
same  method,  that  is,  a  front  and  hind  foot  together, 
and  he  cannot  go  far. 

If  there  is  anything  handier  about  a  pack  outfit  than 
these  hobbles  for  lengthening  a  lash  rope,  tying  on  a 
forgotten  coffeepot  or  a  thousand  and  one  unexpected 


HORSE   EQUIPMENT   FOR   RANGE    WORK  365 

things  where  a  bit  of  rope  is  needed,  I  do  not  know  what 
it  is. 

Pack  Saddles. — Two  general  types  of  pack  saddles  are 
used  in  the  West;  the  aparejo  and  the  sawbuck.  The 
aparejo  (ap-ah-ray-ho)  is  used  exclusively  in  Govern- 
ment pack  trains  or  where  the  work  is  done  by  experi- 
enced men  who  are  constantly  packing  and  will  keep  the 


A  First-Class  Job  of  Packing. 

m  order  and  well  set  up.  For  use  with  large 
trains  handled  by  experienced  men,  the  aparejo  is  by  far 
the  most  humane  and  satisfactory  method  known  for 
carrying  all  kinds  of  materials  on  a  mule's  back;  but 
for  occasional  trips  in  the  hands  of  the  ordinary  western 
man,  the  sawbuck  pattern  is  the  one  in  general  use. 

There  are  some  modifications  of  it.     The  most  suc- 
cessful is  where  the  cross  trees  are  carried  down  on  the 


366  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

animal's  side  some  distance,  with  the  idea  of  keeping 
the  pack  off  its  ribs.  The  "cross  trees"  are  simply  the 
cross  pieces  which  are  bolted  to  the  "bars"  or  flat  parts 
which  bear  on  the  animal's  back.  In  the  improved  form 
they  come  down  below  the  bars  about  eighteen  inches 
but  do  not  touch  the  blankets  at  all,  being  curved  to 
follow  the  lines  of  the  barrel  or  ribs  and  hang  clear  of 
the  animal.  The  effect  is  much  the  same  as  that  gained 
by  the  use  of  the  Basque  hitch,  mentioned  under  the 
head  of  "hitches." 


Double-Rigged   Pack   Saddle.  The    Shape   of   the    Tree   Keeps   Load 

Off  a  Horse's  Ribs. 

The  cross  tree  or  sawbuck  saddle  in  the  hands  of  a 
careless  man  is  undoubtedly  about  the  most  satisfactory 
and  ingenious  method  of  torturing  a  poor  animal  that 
has  ever  been  invented.  I  have  seen  pack  trains  in  the 
Sierras  and  in  Nevada  packing  cordwood  down  a  steep 
mountain  trail  day  after  day,  each  mule  with  a  sixth 
of  a  cord  of  heavy  pitch  pine  on  its  back,  with  the  saw- 
buck  saddle  used  by  careful  humane  packers,  without  a 
mule  in  the  train  showing  a  sore  back.  I  have  also  seen 
similar  trains  where  one  could  not  walk  on  the  lee  side 
of  the  mules  in  the  corral,  so  offensive  was  the  odor 
from  sore  backs.  I  have  also  seen  a  tenderfoot  packer 


HORSE    EQUIPMENT    FOR    RANGE    WORK 


367 


load  three  blankets  and  ten  pounds  of  grub  on  such  a 
saddle  and  tear  a  horse's  back  all  to  pieces  inside  of  three 
days.  It  is  all  in  the  packer. 

See  to  it  that  the  saddle  sets  just  where  it  should; 
not  too  far  forward  where  it  will  dig  into  the  withers, 
nor  too  far  back  so  as  to  eat  up  the  kidneys.  See  that 


Packing  Wood  Down  a  Mountain  Side;   Six  Loads  to  the  Cord. 

the  breeching  and  breast  straps  are  fastened  so  as  to 
keep  the  saddle  in  place  and  still  not  choke  the  animal 
going  up  hill  or  wear  the  hide  all  off  his  hindquarters 
going  down. 

Have  it  double-rigged,  no  matter  what  may  be  your 
private  opinion  of  that  rig  for  a  riding  saddle.  See  that 
a  fork  or  knife  does  not  work  through  the  kyaks  and 


368  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

dig  into  the  horse's  back  or  ribs  all  the  day  long.  Do 
not  be  .so  lazy  that  when  you  stop  at  noon  you  allow 
the  animal  to  wear  the  pack  for  an  hour  or  so  instead 
of  taking  it  off  and  giving  him  a  rest  too.  If  you  can 
do  it,  make  your  journey  all  in  one  march  and  get  it 
over  with  and  the  pack  off  for  the  day.  Keep  the  ropes 
tightened  up.  After  going  a  mile  or  two  in  the  morn- 
ing, make  it  a  plan  to  stop  the  outfit  and  go  over  the 
packs  and  see  how  everything  is  riding.  With  this 
overhauling  the  average  pack  should  ride  all  the  rest  of 
the  day. 

For  regular  traveling  in  the  mountainous  country 
200  pounds  is  all  an  animal  should  ordinarily  carry.  Its 
pack  is  a  dead  load  and  carries  heavier  than  the  load 
your  saddle  animal  carries. 

Hitches. — There  is  a  good  deal  of  glamour  about  the 
"throwing  of  the  diamond  hitch."  To  many  people  it 
is  believed  to  be  a  sort  of  patent  of  frontier  nobility. 
This  may  be  so  to  a  certain  extent,  but  there  are  many 
old-time  westerners  who  never  knew  how  to  throw  the 
diamond  and  still  have  spent  many  years  of  their  lives 
in  handling  pack  outfits.  The  truth  is  that  the  diamond 
hitch  is  rather  a  professional  tie  to  be  used  with  an  apare- 
jo.  It  can  be  and  of  course  is  used  with  other  packs 
and  outfits,  but  to  learn  it  is  not  an  easy  matter  and 
unless  one  is  using  it  all  the  time  and  in  constant  practice 
one  is  apt  to  get  mixed  on  it  and  end  up  with  what  is 
frequently  called  an  "Oregon  wind."  (Make  that  word 
rhyme  with  "find.")  There  are  an  endless  number  of 
hitches  used  by  western  men,  as  the  squaw,  the  stirrup, 
the  bed  and  the  basco;  all  are  good  and  for  their  pur- 
poses quite  as  satisfactory  in  every  way  as  the  diamond. 

Of  these  there  are  but  two  to  which  I  shall  call  at- 


HORSE    EQUIPMENT    FOR   RANGE    WORK 


369 


tention.  One  is  to  be  used  in  packing  simply  a  bed 
from  camp  to  camp.  Lay  the  bed  canvas  on  the  ground 
and  place  the  blankets  in  the  center  of  it  at  full  length 
but  folded  once,  so  as  to  make  the  pack  about  3^  feet 
wide  and  the  length  of  the  blankets.  Fold  the  canvas 
over  the  blankets  and  then  lay  the  pack  across  the  ani- 
mal's back,  allowing  it  to  hang  down  on  each  side.  Pass 
each  end  around  the  body  of  the  pack  animal  so  as  to 


A  Handy  Bed  Pack  Sometimes  Called  "The  Oregon  Wind." 

form  a  belt  about  him.  Then  open  the  loop  of  your 
rope  large  enough  to  allow  the  horse  to  step  into  it  and 
bring  it  back  around  the  blankets  about  six  inches  from 
the  front  edge.  Slip  the  hondo  or  loop  up  until  when 
pulled  tight  it  will  come  right  back  of  the  withers  and 
just  over  the  backbone.  Draw  it  as  tight  as  possible, 
then  carry  the  loose  end  back  about  a  foot,  carry  it 
around  the  animal,  bring  the  end  through  the  rope  so  as 


370  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

to  make  a  hitch  about  the  pack  and  draw  it  as  tight  as 
possible.  Repeat  this  again  another  foot  back  and  make 
the  end  fast. 

This  pack  will  ride  all  day  long  but  like  any  other  pack 
it  will  need  tightening  following  the  natural  loosening 
up  of  the  rope,  due  to  the  settling  of  the  load.  The 
beauty  of  it  is  that  it  can  turn  over  and  do  no 
harm.  Going  up  a  steep  mountain  trail,  if  it  is  not  pret- 
ty tight  it  is  likely  to  be  shed  over  the  animal's  tail,  in 
which  event  you  will  have  a  stampede  and  some  scat- 
tered bedding  to  pick  up.  With  a  mixed  pack,  however, 
a  lot  of  bedding,  cooking  utensils  and  grub,  one  must 
either  have  them  done  up  into  bundles,  tied  in  sacks 
or  packed  in  "kyaks"  or  pack  pockets.  In  California 
they  call  them  alforjas  (al-fork-has).  These  are  either 
heavy  canvas  or  leather  bags  or  made  by  taking  ordi- 
nary ten  gallon  coaloil  cases  or  other  wooden  boxes 
about  the  same  size,  and  stretching  over  them  a  fresh 
rawhide.  The  hide  of  a  yearling  steer  is  the  best  for 
this  purpose. 

With  a  pair  of  leather  or  rope  ears  these  are  swung 
over  the  pack  saddle,  rilled .  with  the  easily  broken  or 
"losable  stuff"  and  the  blankets  spread  over  them.  On 
top  of  this  place  the  canvas  and  you  have  a  mighty  good 
pack  to  carry  almost  anything  that  a  man  wants  to  pack 
in  the  mountains. 

Now  for  the  Hitch. — Of  all  the  many  western  hitches 
for  pack  purposes  the  one  used  in  California  by  the  For- 
est rangers  in  the  Sierras  is  to  my  mind  the  most  easily 
learned,  the  easiest  to  remember  after  being  out  of  prac- 
tice for  a  year  or  so  and  the  easiest  for  one  man  to 
handle  alone. 

With  two  men,  the  man  on  the  "off"  side  takes  the 


Fig.    1. — The    "Off"    Man   Throws    Over     Fig.     2. — The     "Near"     Man    Pulls    or 
the    Top    of    the    Pack    a    Loop  the     Running     Part    of 

of  the  Rope.  the    Rope. 


Fig.    3.— The    "Off"    Man    Passes   It   to      Fig.    4.— With   His   Left   Hand    Slips 
the   Left   and   Rear   of  the   Pack.  Loop  Under   From   the   Rear. 


Fig.    &. — Draw    Out   More   of   the    Run-     Fig.    6. — Work  the   Running   End  Down 
ning   End,    Making    a   Large    Loop.  along    the    Main    Rope    Around    the 

Rear    Corner    and    Forward    Until    It 
Is  In   the   Center   of   the   Pack. 


Fig.     7. — Pulling     Down     So     It     Rests     Fig.     8. — "Give    a    Good    Pull    on    the 
Against    the    Pack.  Running   End,    Pulling   Up." 


HORSE    EQUIPMENT    FOR   RANGE    WORK  373 

lash  rope  and  cinch,  keeping  the  coil  of  the  rope  on  his 
side.  He  throws  over  the  top  of  the  pack  a  bight  or  loop 
of  the  rv  pe  (Fig.  1),  which  the  "near"  man  takes,  places 
the  loop  in  the  cinch  hook  which  the  "off"  man  pushes 
to  him  under  the  animal's  belly,  and  slips  the  hook  far 
enough  under  the  animal  so  that  when  tight  it  will  pull 
up  just  below  the  lower  edge  of  the  pack.  The  "near" 
man  then  shouts  "take,"  and  pulls  on  the  running  part 
of  the  rope  until  the  cinch  is  tight  enough  (Fig.  2.)  The 
''off"  man  takes  the  slack  as  it  comes,  passes  the  rope  to 
his  left  and  the  rear  of  the  pack  (Fig.  3)  clear  down  un- 
der the  corners  and  well  back,  then  across  to  the  right 
well  under  the  pack,  around  and  under  the  front  corner, 
and  up  again  to  the  center  and  top  of  the  pack. 

He  holds  this  from  slipping  back  by  his  right  hand, 
while  with  his  left  he  slips  a  loop  of  the  rope  under  the 
rope  that  came  over  to  him  from  the  "near"  side,  push- 
ing it  under  that  rope  from  the  rear  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
This  all  takes  place  on  top  of  the  pack. 

Take  the  right  hand  side  of  this  loop  in  the  right  hand, 
and  hold  it  from  slipping  back,  while  with  the  left  hand 
draw  out  more  of  the  running  end,  making  a  much  larger 
loop  (Fig.  5).  Then  work  the  lower  end  of  this  large 
loop  down  along  the  main  rope  under  the  rear  corner 
of  the  pack,  around  towards  the  front  until  it  is  in  the 
center  of  the  pack  about  where  the  cinch  ring  comes, 
but  still  under  the  main  rope  (Fig.  6).  Then  tighten 
the  rope  by  pulling  on  the  part  in  your  right  hand  (Fig. 
6).  Pull  it  forward  in  line  with  the  animal's  backbone, 
never  out  to  one  side.  This  is  an  invariable  rule  in  good 
packing;  pull  in  line  with  the  animal,  never  sideways. 

This  should  bring  the  "twist"  of  the  lash  rope  about 
in  the  center  and  somewhat  on  the  side  of  the  pack; 


374  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

then  while  holding  it  from  slipping  with  the  right  hand 
take  up  the  slack  in  the  running  end  with  the  left  hand, 
pulling  down  so  it  rests  closely  against  the  pack  (Fig. 
7).  When  this  is  done,  give  a  good  pull  on  the  running 
end,  pulling  up  on  it  (Fig.  8).  This  draws  the  rope 
tight  and,  if  the  job  has  been  well  done,  the  lower  edge 
of  the  pack  will  be  drawn  up  and  away  from  the  ani- 
mal's body,  swinging  clear — a  most  satisfactory  way  for 
a  pack  to  ride.  Then  throw  the  running  end  of  the 
lash  rope  over  to  the  man  on  the  "near"  side  who  re- 
peats the  process  on  his  side  and  finally  makes  the  end 


Kyaks  (Alforjas  in  Spanish)  or  Pack  Pockets.      The  Loops  Hook  Over  the  Tops  of 
the  Pack  Saddle.     A  Light  Wooden  Box  in  One  Is  a  Great  Advantage. 

of  the  lash  rope  fast  on  the  top  and  the  job  is  .done.  At 
this  point  if  packing  alone,  slip  a  little  loop  of  the  loose 
end  you  have  thrown  over,  under  the  tight  rope  on  top, 
so  it  cannot  run  back  and  loosen  up.  Then  when  you 
get  on  the  other  side  a  quick  jerk  will  pull  it  from  under 
the  tight  rope  and  you  can  go  ahead  on  that  side. 

Such  a  pack  rides  well,  is  readily  tightened,  can  be 
handled  nicely  by  one  man,  is  quickly  cast  off  to  unpack, 
takes  any  35  feet  of  lash  rope,  is  readily  learned  and  not 
easily  forgotten.  There  is  nothing  so  disagreeable  in 
packing  as  a  wet  lash  rope,  hence  it  should  be  kept  dry 


HORSE   EQUIPMENT   FOR  RANGE   WORK  375 

in  camp  and  if  possible  when  wet  at  unpacking  should 
be  dried  out  before  the  campfire  at  night. 

When  laying  out  your  packs  care  must  be  used  to 
have  the  two  sides  as  nearly  equal  in  weight  as  possible. 
If  you  use  kyaks  take  along  plenty  of  .gunny-sacks  with 
which  to  wrap  things  and  keep  them  from  rattling.  Of 
all  disorderly  affairs  a  kyak  full  of  cooking  and  eating 
utensils  all  rattling  and  jingling  like  a  tin  pedder's 
wagon  is  the  worst.  Besides  it  is  apt  to  wear  holes  in 
the  kyaks  and  break  some  of  the  contents.  I  have  seen 
both  Gen.  George  Cook  and  Gen.  Mackenzie,  two  of  the 
old-time  Indian  fighters  of  the  army,  stop 'a  pack  train 
passing  in  review  before  them,  as  it  left  camp  for  the 
field  on  an  Indian  scout,  and  make  the  packers  pull  a 
certain  mule  out  of  the  train,  unload  a  noisy  pack  and 
remedy  the  trouble  right  there  before  them,  with  pos- 
sibly 250  cavalry  men  and  the  packers  of  a  100-mule  pack 
train  "guying"  the  unlucky  packer  as  they  rode  past. 


APPENDIX. 
A  BILL. 

For  the  improvement  of  grazing  on  the  public  lands  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  regulate  the  same,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  unreserved, 
unappropriated  public  lands  of  the  United  States  shall  be  subject  to 
the  provisions  of  this  Act,  and  the  President  of  the  United  States  is 
hereby  authorized  to  establish  from  time  to  time,  by  proclamation, 
grazing  districts  upon  the  unreserved,  unappropriated  public  lands  of 
the  United  States,  conforming  to  State  and  County  lines  so  far  as 
practicable,  whereupon  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  under  rules  and 
regulations  prescribed  by  him,  shall  execute  or  cause  to  be  executed 
the  provisions  of  this  Act,  appoint  all  officers  necessary  for  the  admin- 
istration and  protection  of  such  grazing  districts,  regulate  their  use 
for  grazing  purposes,  protect  them  from  depredation,  from  injury  to 
the  natural  forage  crop,  and  from  erosion  ;  restore  and  improve  their 
grazing  value  through  regulation,  by  the  eradication  of  poisonous 
plants,  and  by  the  extermination  of  predatory  animals  and  otherwise ; 
eradicate  and  prevent  infectious  and  contagious  diseases  injurious  to 
domestic  animals ;  issue  permits  to  graze  live  stock  thereon  for  periods 
of  not  more  than  ten  years,  which  shall  include  the  right  to  fence  the 
same,  giving  preference  when  practicable  to  homesteaders  and  to 
present  occupants  of  the  range  who  own  improved  ranches  or  who 
have  provided  water  for  live  stock  grazed  on  the  public  lands ;  and 
charge  and  collect  reasonable  fees  for  such  grazing  permits,  based 
upon  the  grazing  value  of  the  land  in  each  locality  :  Provided,  That 
for  ten  years  after  the  passage  of  this  Act  such  charge  for  grazing 
shall  not  exceed  four  cents  per  acre  nor  be  less  than  one-half  cent  per 
acre,  or  the  equivalent  thereof  on  a  per  capita  basis,  and  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  shall  revise  and  re-establish  maximum  and  minimum 
rates  of  charge  for  grazing  for  each  succeeding  period  of  ten  years. 

SEC.  2.  That  homestead  or  other  settlement,  location,  entry,  patent, 
and  all  other  disposal  of  public  lands  under  the  public-land  laws 
shall  be  in  no  wise  restricted,  limited,  or  abridged  hereby ;  nor  shall 
anything  herein  be  construed  to  prevent  bona  fide  settlers  or  residents 
from  grazing  their  stock  used  for  domestic  purposes,  as  defined  under 
the  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  on  the  public  lands 
affected  hereby  :  Provided,  That  after  the  establishment  of  any  such 
grazing  district  no  form  of  location,  settlement,  or  entry  thereon 
shall  give  a  right  to  grazing  privileges  on  public  lands  except  when 

377 


378          WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

made  under  laws  requiring  cultivation  or  agricultural  use  of  the  land : 
Provided  further,  That  permits  to  graze  live  stock  upon  land  which 
is  subsequently  appropriated  under  any  public-land  law  shall  not  be 
affected  by  such  subsequent  appropriation,  except  as  to  the  land  actual- 
ly appropriated,  until  the  end  of  the  current  annual  grazing  period  : 
Provided  further,  That  no  permit  shall  be  issued  which  will  entitle  the 
permittee  to  the  use  of  any  buildings,  corrals,  reservoirs,  or  other  im- 
provements owned  or  controlled  by  a  prior  occupant  until  he  has  paid 
such  prior  occupant  a  reasonable  pro  rata  value  for  the  use  of  such 
improvements.  If  the  parties  interested  can  not  agree,  then  the 
amount  of  such  payment  shall  be  determined  under  rules  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture :  And  provided  further,  That  when  buildings, 
corrals,  reservoirs,  wells,  or  other  improvements,  except  fences,  shall 
have  been  established  on  any  forty-acre  tract  to  the  value  of  more 
than  one  hundred  dollars,  as  determined  by  rules  of  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  such  forty-acre  tract  shall  not  be  subject  to  settlement 
or  appropriation  under  the  public-land  laws  during  the  permit  period 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner  of  such  buildings,  corrals,  reservoirs, 
wells,  or  other  improvements. 

SEC.  3.  That  all  water  on  public  lands  or  subject  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  United  States  within  such  grazing  districts  may  be  used 
for  milling,  mining,  domestic,  or  irrigation  purposes  under  the  laws 
of  the  State  or  Territory  wherein  such  grazing  districts  are  situated, 
or  under  the  laws  of  the  United  States  and  the  rules  and  regulations 
thereunder. 

SEC.  4.  That  no  grazing  permits  issued  under  this  Act  shall  pro- 
hibit settlers,  prospectors,  and  others  from  entering  upon  such  grazing 
districts  for  all  proper  and  lawful  purposes,  including  the  use  and 
enjoyment  of  their  rights  and  property  and  prospecting,  locating,  and 
developing  the  mineral  resources  of  such  districts ;  and  wagon  roads 
or  improvements  may  be  constructed  thereon  in  accordance  with  law, 
and  all  persons  shall  have  the  right  to  move  live  stock  from  one 
locality  to  another  within  such  grazing  districts  under  such  restric- 
tions only  as  are  necessary  to'  protect  the  users  of  the  land  which 
will  be  driven  across. 

SEC.  5.  That  the  users  of  the  public  lands  under  the  provisions  of 
this  Act  may  select  a  committee  of  not  more  than  four  members  from 
the  users  of  any  such  grazing  district,  which  committee  shall  represent 
the  owners  of  different  kinds  of  stock,  and,  with  the  officer  appointed 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  charge  of  such  grazing  district, 
shall  constitute  an  executive  board,  which  shall  determine  whether 
the  permits  for  such  grazing  districts  shall  be  issued  upon  an  acreage 
or  upon  a  per  capita  basis,  shall  make  such  division  of  the  range  be- 
tween the  different  kinds  of  stock  as  is  necessary,  and  shall  decide 
whether  the  distribution  of  the  range  shall  be  by  individual  or  com- 
munity allotments.  The  executive  board  shall  also  determine  the 
total  number  of  animals  to  be  grazed  in  each  grazing  district,  and 
shall  decide  upon  the  adoption  of  any  special  rules  to  meet  local  con- 
ditions, and  shall  establish  lanes  or  driveways,  and  shall  prescribe 
special  rules  to  govern  the  movement  of  live  stock  across  the  public 


APPENDIX  379 

lands  in  such  districts  so  as  to  protect  the  users  of  the  land  in  their 
rights  and  the  right  of  persons  having  the  necessity  to  drive  across 
the  same.  The  executive  board,  after  thirty  days'  notice  by  publica- 
tion, shall  also  determine  the  preference  in  the  allotment  of  grazing 
privileges  provided  for  in  section  one  of  this  Act,  and  shall,  under 
rules  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  determine  the  value  of  the 
improvements  and  the  use  of  the  same  whenever  that  may  become 
necessary  under  the  provisions  of  this  Act  in  the  administration  of 
the  same.  Fences,  wells,  and  other  improvements  may  be  constructed 
with  the  permission  of  the  Government  officer  in  charge,  who  shall 
record  the  ownership  and  location  of  such  improvements.  Any  dif- 
ferences between  a  majority  of  the  executive  board  and  the  officer  in 
charge  shall  be  referred  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  shall 
be  adjusted  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  him.  Any  interested  party 
shall  have  the  right  to  appeal  from  any  decision  of  the  board  to  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture.  If  the  users  of  the  land  fail  to  select  the 
committee  as  herein  provided,  the  President  of  the  United  States  shall 
name  such  committee  from  such  grazing  districts,  representing  the 
owners  of  the  different  kinds  of  stock,  as  above  provided. 

SEC.  6.  That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  fix  a  date  which 
shall  not  be  less  than  one  year  from  the  establishment  of  any  grazing 
district,  and  after  such  date  the  pasturing  of  any  class  of  live  stock 
on  public  land  in  said  grazing  districts  without  a  permit,  or  in  vio- 
lation of  the  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  as  herein 
provided,  shall  constitute  a  misdemeanor  and  shall  be  punishable  by 
a  fine  of  not  less  than  ten  dollars  nor  more  than  one  thousand  dol- 
lars, or  by  imprisonment  for  not  less  than  ten  days  nor  more  than 
one  year,  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment,  in  the  discretion 
of  the  court. 

SEC.  7.  That  twenty-five  per  centum  of  all  moneys  received  from 
each  grazing  district  during  any  fiscal  year  shall  be  paid,  at  the  end 
thereof,  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  the  State  or  Territory  in 
which  said  district  is  situated,  to  be  expended  as  the  State  or  Terri- 
torial legislature  may  prescribe  for  the  benefit  of  the  public  schools 
and  public  roads  of  the  county  or  counties  in  which  the  grazing  dis- 
trict is  situated :  Provided,  That  when  any  grazing  district  is  in 
more  than  one  State  or  Territory,  or  County,  the  distributive  share 
to  each  from  the  proceeds  of  said  district  shall  be  proportional  to  its 
area  therein.  The  sum  of  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  is  hereby 
appropriated,  to  be  available  until  expended,  for  the  payment  of  ex- 
penses necessary  to  execute  the  provisions  of  this  Act. 

SEC.  8.  That  the  President  is  hereby  authorized  to  modify  any 
proclamation  establishing  any  grazing  district,  but  not  oftener  than 
once  in  five  years,  to  take  effect  in  not  less  than  one  year  there- 
after, and  by  such  modification  may  reduce  the  area  or  change  the 
boundary  lines  of  such  grazing  district. 


380  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


A  FEW  DEFINITIONS. 

Following  is  a  list  of  definitions  of  words  and  expressions 
in  common  use  among  stockmen: 

Arroyo. — (Spanish).      Small    dry   wash,    small    river.      Used    In    the 

Southwest  generally  to  designate  a  dry  wash. 
Baldy,  Bald-Faced. — Horse  with  a  white  face. 
Bed  Ground. — The  place  where  a  herd  is  held   for  the   night. 
Big  Jaws. — Animals  showing  signs  of  the  disease  known  as  lump 

jaw  or  big  jaw   (actinomycosis).     Dogies,  dwarfs,  swaybacks 

and   big   jaws   are   generally   mentioned   in   all   steer-buying 

contracts   as   not  to   be   received   by   the   purchaser   and   not 

to  be   considered  as  part  of  the   percentage  of  cut  allowed 

the  buyer. 
Bog    Riders. — Men    whose    duties    are    to    ride    the    ranges    in    the 

spring  and  look  out  for  weak  cows  that  get  into  mud  holes 

and  have  not  sufficient  strength  to  get  out  again. 
Broken-Mouthed. — Applied  to  a  ewe  or  sheep  which  after  reaching 

the   age   of  seven   generally   loses   some   of   the   front   teeth; 

an  old  sheep. 

Bronco. — Wild  horse;   any  unbroken  horse. 
Bronco    Buster,   Bronco    Twister. — A   man    hired    to    break    bronco 

horses. 
Buckaroo. — Southern     California     corruption     of     Spanish     word 

"vaquero,"   cowboy. 
Bucking  Up. — Placing  the  bucks  with  the  ewes.     A  band  of  sheep 

is  sold  "bucked  up"  to  lamb  on  certain  dates. 
Caballado. — (Cah-val-ya-do).        Tae  horse  herd. 
Camp  Tender,  Camp  Rustler. — A  man  who  accompanies  the  sheep 

herd,   looks  after   the  packs,   locates   camp  and   relieves   the 

herder  from  such  matters. 

Cantiuas. — A  pair  of  saddle  bags  that  hang  over  the  saddle  horn. 
Caporal. —  (Cap-o-ral.)      The  foreman  in   charge   of  a  sheep   outfit. 
Cavvyard,    Cavvy. — (Spanish).     A  bunch    of   horses. 
Chamisal. — (Cha-me-sal.)      Applied    by    Mexican    sheep-herders    to 

a    range    where    the    majority    of    the    feed    is    browse    and 

weeds. 
Chaparajoes,  Chaps. — (Shaps.)      Leather  covers  for  the  legs  when 

riding    in    brush.       From    Spanish    chaparral,    thick    brush. 

Properly    pronounced    chap-ar-rer-as. 

Chupo,  Chapo. — (Spanish.)     A  short-coupled  chunky-built  horse. 
Cienaga. — (Se-en-ega.)    From  the   Spanish  cien,   meaning   hundred, 

and  agua,  meaning  water.     A  wet,  swampy  place  with  many 

springs. 
Cooney. — A  raw  hide  slung  under  the  rear  axle  and  reach  of  the 

chuck  wagon  in  which  the  cook  carries  his  iron  dutch-ovens 

and  other  heavy  utensils.     Often  the  brands  are  carried   in 

it  also. 


APPENDIX  381 

Coulee.— (French).      Used    in    the    Northwest    much    the    same    as 

Arroyo  in  the  Southwest. 
Counting    Chute.— A    V-shaped    fence    into    which    the    sheep    are 

crowded  and  as  they  escape  through  a  small  opening  at  the 

point  can  be  readily  counted. 
Crop.— To  cut  off  the  end   of  the   ear. 
Cross-bred. — A  product  of  Merino   and  mutton  blood.     A  type   of 

sheep    producing    a    fair    grade    of    medium    wool,    together 

with  a  large  carcass  for  mutton  purposes. 
Culls  or  Cutbacks. — Those  animals   in  a  herd  which  for  his  own 

reasons  a  buyer  rejects. 

Cut. — In  sheep-herding,  a  small  number  of  animals  that  get  sep- 
arated  from  the  main  herd;   in  cattle,  a  bunch  of  cows  or 

steers  that  are  cut  out  from  the  herd  to  be  driven  off. 
Cutter. — Slang  for  six-shooter. 
Cutting  Horse. — A  horse  used  especially  for  the  work  of  cutting 

out;  a  "carver,"  a  "chopper,"  chopping  horse. 

Cutting    Out,    Parting    Out,    Carving,     Chopping. — All     cowboy     ex- 
pressions to  cover  the  operation  of  removing  from  the  herd 

such   animals   as   are   needed,   like   cows,   calves   and   steers. 

Cutting    "double    barreled"    is    done    by    two    men;    usually 

but  one  man  works. 
Day    Herd. — The   animals    carried    along   with    the    roundup    outfit 

into  which  those   animals  that  are   wanted  for  shipping  or 

other  purposes  are  placed. 
Dilsey.— A  saddle   mare. 
Docking. — Cutting    off    the    tails    of    lambs.      Done    primarily    for 

sanitary  reasons  but  also  for  breeding  reasons  in  the  case 

of  the  ewe.     In  the  wethers  it  is  more  or  less  a  fancy  that 

It    makes    a    better    looking    animal,    trimmer    and    more 

symmetrical. 
Doctoring  Sheep. — To  go  over  a  sheep  herd  and  "doctor"  by  hand 

such  as  show  signs  of  scab. 
Dodge  Gate.— A  gate  in  a  corral  generally  in  a  lane  down  which 

animals  are  driven  and  "dodged"  or  separated  as  they  come, 

by  swinging  the  gate  back  and  forth  so  as  to  classify  them. 
Dogie. —  (Dough-gie).     A  motherless  calf  on  the  range.     Generally 

applied   to   those   calves   whose   mothers   have   died   or   been 

separated  from  them.     A  pot-bellied  calf. 
Double    Rig    Saddle. — A    saddle    with    two    cinches;    a    "rim    fire" 

saddle. 
Downers. — Cattle   and   other  stock   which  have  been  down  in   the 

cars  during  shipment  and  arrive  at  the  stockyards  bruised, 

dirty  and  unfit  for  sale  as  beef. 
Drop   Band. — Ewes   that  are  just   ready   to   drop   or   are   dropping 

their  lambs. 

Dry  Stuff. — Cows  or  ewes  without  young. 
Dwarfs. — Undersized   animals;   those   which   have  been   stunted   in 

some  way;  runts. 

Filly. — A  female  horse  under  two  and  one-half  years. 
Fine-wooled,   Close-wooled. — Applied   to    the   Merino   breed,   which 

includes  Delaines  and  Rambouillets. 
Freemartin. — Generally   applied   to   the   female   born    twin    with    a 

bull.     Commonly  supposed  to  be  sterile  but  many  instances 

are  known  where  this  is  not  the  case. 
Gelding. — A  castrated  horse. 
Grafting   Lambs. — The   operation   of   coaxing   a   ewe   to    mother   a 

strange   lamb. 


382  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Gotcho.— (Mexican.)     A  droop-eared  or  lop-eared  horse. 

Grub. — To   cut  the  ear  off  close  to  the  head  for  an   ear-mark. 

Grullo  (Grew-yo). —  (Spanish  or  Mexican.)  A  dull  slate  or 
smoke-colored  horse;  a  "smoky." 

Hackamore.— (Jaquima).  A  headstall  used  in  breaking  saddle 
horses.  A  Spanish  word  taken  from  the  Arabian. 

Heifer.— A  female  of  the  bovine  species  before  she  has  dropped 
her  first  calf.  After  that  she  becomes  a  cow. 

Illnny. — The  offspring  of  a  stallion  and  a  jenny  or  female  ass. 

Hogging  Rope. — Short  piece  of  rope  for  use  in  hog-tying  an  ani- 
mal. 

Hogr  Tie. — To  tie  an  animal  down  by  all  four  feet. 

Hoodlum  Wagon. — The  extra  wagon  taken  with  the  chuck  wagon 
on  the  roundup  to  haul  grain,  extra  bedding,  and  at  times 
wood  and  water. 

l  Bunch. — On  a  sheep  range  those  animals  that  are  sick, 
injured  in  some  way,  or  ewes  with  lambs  which  are  not 
thrifty  and  therefore  need  more  care  than  they  get  in 
the  large  herd. 

Jack.— A  male  of  the  ass  species. 

Jennet. — (Genet.)     A  small  Spanish  horse  in  range  language. 

Jenny. — A  female   of  the  ass  species. 

Jingle  Bob. — An  ear-mark  made  by  cutting  the  ear  on  the  upper 
side,  so  as  to  break  the  back  of  the  ear.  This  allows  It 
to  hang  down  along  the  side  of  the  face  much  as  do  the 
long  ears  of  the  Angora  goat. 

Jug  Handle. — A  mark  made  in  cattle  by  slitting  the  dew  lap 
about  4  inches  so  that  the  outside  strip  hangs  free  from 
the  animal. 

Lasso. — (Spanish.)  To  snare;  to  rope;  rope  used  by  stockmen 
to  catch  cattle. 

Legging  Out. — The  act  of  pulling  sheep  out  of  a  bunch  by  the 
hind  legs,  catching  them  either  with  the  hand  or  the  crook. 

Lepple. — A  southwestern  name  for  dogie.     Taken  from  the  Spanish. 

Loafer. — Western  corruption  of  the  Spanish  Lobo;  a  wolf. 

Mare. — A  female  of  the  horse  species  over  two  and  one  half  years 
of  age. 

Markers. — The  black  sheep  in  a  herd.  Every  herder  knows  exact- 
ly how  many  of  such  he  has  and  by  running  over  them 
occasionally  he  feels  fairly  sure  that  if  they  are  all  there 
he  has  lost  no  sheep. 

Maverick. — An  unbranded  calf  or  colt  not  following  the  mother. 
The  name  goes  back  to  early  days  in  Texas  when  a  man 
named  Maverick  ran  cattle  on  a  small  island,  and  hence 
neither  branded  nor  marked  them.  Occasionally  one  or  two 
would  swim  to  the  mainland  and- when  found  in  the  herds 
were  known  as  maverick  cattle,  and  soon  the  name  was 
adopted  for  all  such  animals. 

Mecate.— (Me-cah-tee).  A  hair  rope  used  as  a  tie  rope  for  horses; 
often  called  "Macarty,"  used  with  hackamore  rig.  In  Mex- 
ico, a  maguey  rope. 

Milling. — A  herd  of  stock  held  under  guard  where  the  animals 
keep  walking  round  and  round  in  one  direction. 

Morphodite,  Hermaphrodite. — An  animal  having  the  generative 
parts  of  both  sexes.  This  name  goes  back  to  the  old 
Greek  story  of  the  son  of  Hermes  and  Aphrodite,  who,  while 
bathing  one  day,  became  united  in  one  body  with  a  water 
nymph. 


APPENDIX  383 

Mule. — The  offspring  of  a  mare  and  a  jackass. 

Mulley. — A  hornless  animal;  a  saddle  with  no  horn. 

Neater. — A  small  farmer  generally  located  within  the  limits  of 
some  stock  range. 

Open-wooled,  Coarse-wooled. — Applied  to  sheep  of  the  mutton 
breeds,  such  as  Lincolns  and  Shropshires. 

Orejana. — (Oh-ray-hah-na).  From  Oreja,  the  ear,  Spanish.  A 
maverick;  a  long-eared  calf. 

Outlaw.— (In  Spanish  a  "Cimarron.")  A  range  animal  that  does 
not  travel  nor  associate  with  others  of  its  kind. 

Over  Half  Crop,  Upper  Half  Crop.— The  upper  or  lower  half  of 
the  ear  is  taken  off  at  a  point  about  half  way  to  the  head. 

Ox. — Generally  applied  to  work  cattle.  Correctly  a  steer  that 
works  in  yoke  or  collar.  Both  bulls  and  steers  are  used  for 
work  purposes. 

Palomlllo,  I'alomluo. — (Mexican.)  A  cream-colored  horse,  a  buck- 
skin. 

Parrot-mouthed  Horse. — A  horse  whose  front  teeth,  generally 
through  age  but  not  always,  project  unusually  far  forward 
beyond  the  jaws.  "Buck-toothed,"  like  the  beak  of  a  parrot; 
hence  "parrot-mouth." 

Pelon. — (Pay-loan.)  A  mulley  animal;  hornless;  from  Spanish, 
bald. 

Reata. — Same   as   lasso.     Generally  made   of   rawhide. 

Remu-dn.— (Spanish).  Remounts,  exchange  horses,  saddle  horses. 
The  horse  herd  with  a  roundup. 

Rldgllng. — A  male  horse  one  or  both  of  whose  testicles  have  not 
"come  down"  where  they  can  be  reached  for  castration. 
Such  animals  can  serve  mares.  As  their  testicles  are  very 
hard  to  find,  the  castrating  operation  should  be  performed 
by  some  one  well  acquainted  with  the  work.  Frequently 
called  an  "original,"  also  "ridgal." 

Shrinkagre. — The  reduction  in  weight  allowed  the  buyer  in  receiv- 
ing cattle  fresh  from  the  range  or  pasture.  A  3  per  cent 
reduction  or  an  over-night's  stand  in  the  corral  without 
feed  or  water  is  generally  considered  a  fair  allowance  to 
each  side. 

Side  Winder,  Stern  Wheeler. — A  pacing  saddle  horse. 

Single  Rig  Saddle. — A  "  center  fire"  saddle;  saddle  with  one  cinch. 

Sit-fast. — A  hard  callous  place  that  comes  upon  a  horse's  back 
where  there  has  been  a  saddle  sore. 

Sleeper. — A  calf  that  has  been  marked  but  not  branded.  This  is 
a  favorite  trick  of  the  cattle  rustler  who  finds  on  the 
range  a  large  unbranded  calf  following  its  mother.  The 
cow  belongs  to  some  one  else.  The  rustler  catches  the  calf 
and  places  the  owner's  ear-mark  on  it  but  does  not  brand 
it.  Such  a  calf  is  very  likely  to  be  overlooked  in  a  big 
roundup,  and  if  it  is  and  becomes  weaned  the  rustler  who 
has  kept  his  eye  on  it  ropes  it  again,  cuts  out  the  ear-mark 
and  places  his  brand  on  the  calf. 

Springer. — Market  name  for  a  milk  cow  about  ready  to  calve. 

Squeeze  Chute,  Branding  Chute,  Snapping  Turtle. — A  place  where 
animals  are  forced  through  a  narrow  passage-way  until 
they  reach  the  end,  when  the  side  is  drawn  against  them, 
holding  them  securely  while  they  are  branded  or  dehorned. 
Called  a  "snapping  turtle"  when  the  holding  arrangement 
is  a  heavy  pole  or  timber  which  works  on  a  hinge  at  the 
bottom  and  by  means  of  a  rope  running  from  the  top  over 
a  pulley  is  drawn  against  and  just  in  front  of  the  hip  bones, 
holding  them  securely  while  the  operation  is  performed. 


384  WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 

Stag. — A  male  animal  that  was  not  castrated  until  late  In  life. 
Stallion. — A  male    of    the    equine  species.    Often  called  an  "entire" 

horse. 

Steer. — A  castrated  male  of  the  bovine  species. 
Swallow  Fork. — A  V-shaped  piece   taken   out   of  the   point  of  the 

ear.  , 

SwnybaekH. — Animals  whose  backs  are  unusually  bent  or  swayed. 

A  sign  of  physical  weakness. 

Tapa-deros,  Taps.— Heavy  leather  covers  or  hoods  to  go  over  stir- 
rups of  saddle. 
The  Drags. — Those  animals  that  are  found  at  the  tail  end  of  the 

herd   as   it   travels. 
Under  Bit,  Over  Bit. — A  V-shaped   piece    taken    out   of   the   lower 

or  upper  part  of  the  ear. 
Varruga. — (Spanish.)      Wattle.      A    distinguishing    mark    for    both 

sheep    and    cattle    made    by    cutting    a    strip    of    hide    down 

about  2  inches,  allowing  it  to  hang  like  a  tassel  or  wattle. 

Usually  made  on  the  cheeks  or  necks. 

Vega— Spanish  for  meadow;  also  a  rafter  in  an  adobe  house. 
Wet    Band,   Lamb    Band. — Ewes    whose    lambs   are    old    enough    to 

follow  their  mothers  on  the  range. 
Wether. — A  castrated  male  sheep. 
Wrangler. — The  horse  herder  for  a  roundup  outfit. 


INDEX. 


Aberdeen-Angus  cattle,  95. 
Aconite,   264. 

called  monk's  hood,  268. 
Age  of  live  stock,  169. 
Albuquerque,   New  Mexico,   loco 

frowth  near,   258. 
fa,    253. 

causes  bloat,  252. 
killing:  out,   245. 
Alfileria,  39,  65. 
origin  of,    72. 
Angora    kids,    staking    system, 

162. 

mutton,     111. 
venison,    111. 
Aparejo,    365. 
Arizona,  cost  of  handling  sheep, 

200. 

loco   in,    262. 
loco  year  in,  259. 
Merino   sheep  in,    104. 
Azoturia,  311. 

symptoms   and    remedies,    314. 
Aztec  Cattle  Co.,  115. 

Baits,    poison,    how    to    prepare, 

338. 
Baking    soda,    use    of,    249,    254, 

274. 

Basco  hitch,  370. 
Bears,   not  dangerous   to   stock, 

334. 

Bed  ground,  use  of,  173. 
Bell  Ranch  in  New  Mexico,   114. 
Bermuda   grass,    49. 
Big   jaw,    symptoms   and    reme- 
dies,   286. 
Bits,   riding,   358. 
Black   bunch   grass,    43. 
Black  grama  grass,  49. 
Black  leg,   286. 

symptoms    and    remedies,    288. 

vaccination  against,  293. 
Blankets,   saddle,   359. 
Blanket  weaving,   102. 
Bleeding  of  stock  unwise,  249. 
Blind  teeth  of  horse,  283. 
Bloat,    249,    286. 

how   caused,    252. 

symptoms   and   remedies,    252, 

254,    274. 

Bloating   in  larkspur,    276. 
Blue  grama  grass,  49. 
Blue  grass,  Kentucky,  70. 
Blue    ioint    grass,    identification 

of,    65. 
Blue  stem  grass,   61,   70,   270. 

identificatioM  of,  65. 


Bog  rider,  the,  120. 

Bogging  of  cattle,  122. 

Boots,   high  heeled,   118. 

Bot   fly,    283,    323. 

Bot  fly   (see  heel  flies). 

Bots,    no   such   disease,    283. 

Brands,   altering  of,   196. 

Brand  books,   186,    187,    189,   190, 

191. 

Branding   calves,    129. 
Branding   fluid,   Australian,181. 
Brand   inspectors,    134. 
Brands,  names  of  various  char- 
acters,  192. 

picking  of,   198. 

specimen  of,    192. 
Bridles,  riding,   358. 
Brine,  used  for  pingue,  280. 
Broken-mouthed  ewes,  172. 

sheep,  201. 

Brome  grass,  242,   265. 
Bronco   grass,   72. 
Buck  brush,  61,  65. 
Bucks,   handling  of,   155. 

time  to  place  with  ewes,   155. 

when  too  old,   202. 
Buffalo   grass,    49,    65. 

how  recognized,   49. 

herds,    24. 
Bulls,  dehorning  of,  180. 

number  required,   179. 

on   range,   179. 

question  of  age,  179. 
Bunch  grass,   43. 
Burning  over  a   range,    226. 
Button   sage,   63. 

California     sheep     ranges,     104, 

Calves, 'dehorning  of,  180. 
Camp  rustler,   157. 

tender,   157. 
Canula,   use  of,  255. 
Carrying  capacity  of  ranges,  77. 
Castrating,   183. 

lambs,    151. 
Catclaw,   39. 

Cattle  and  sheep,  grazing  ratio 
between,   78. 

determining  age  of,  164. 

diseases,  286. 
Chamiza,  21,  61. 
Changing  class  of  stock,  214. 
"Chaps,"  118. 

Chloral  hydrate,  use  of,  278,  313. 
Chloroform,   use   of,    322. 
Choke  cherry,  leaves  kill  sheep, 
248. 


386 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


Choke   cherry,   losses   from,   271. 

poisoning,        symptoms       and 

remedies,  280. 
Chuck  wagon,  the,  116,  125. 
Chutes  for  branding,   130. 
Climatic   changes,    85. 
Close    grazing,    244. 

of  ranges,  236,  238. 
Colic,  remedy  for,  311. 

various  kinds  of,   311. 
Colorado,    average    shearing    of 

sheep,  206. 

Coming  of   the  settler,    81. 
Control   of  Government   ranges, 

bill  for,  377. 

Coronado's  expedition,  97. 
Corn  smut,  246. 
Cost,  of  running  sheep,  200. 

of  running  stock,  199. 
Cotswold    sheep,    106. 
Cow  bane  (see  water  hemlock), 

267. 
Coyotes,   in  California,  329. 

killing  of,  327. 

Crow  Creek  reservation,  222. 
Cud,  failure  to  chew,   283. 
Cups  in  teeth,   169. 
Curly  mesquite  grass,  43,  49. 
Curtailment  of  the  open  range, 

31. 
Cutting  out  cattle,  129. 

Death   camas,   247,   248,    266. 

poisoning,   remedies  for,  277. 

varieties  of,  267. 
Deer   flies,    325. 
Definitions,  380. 
Dehorning  cattle,  180. 
Delaine   sheep,   106. 
Desert   range,   40. 
Developing      water      in      quick 

sands,   123. 
Devons,  the,  92. 
Diamond   hitch,    368. 
Dipping  sheep,   149,  306.  f 

Diseases,     of     cattle,     book     on, 
284. 

of  horses,  book  on,  284. 
Docking  lambs,  151. 
Dog-town  grass,  43. 
Double-wintered   steers,    34. 
"Downers,"   136. 
Drags,  how  to  use,  338. 
Drenches,    use    of,    284. 
Drop   band,   the,   153. 
Dry  farmers,  the  89. 

limits   to   advance,    116. 

success  of,  90. 
Ear   marking,   183. 
Ear   marks    on    horses,    184. 
Early  horses  of  the  plains,  97. 
Early  settlers  of  the  plains,   82, 

84,    226. 
England,   cost  of  raising  sheep, 

207. 
Epsom  salts,  use  of,  312. 


Era  of  readjustment,  26. 
Erosion  due  to  stock  trails,  228. 
Ergot,   losses  from,   270. 

poisoning,        symptoms        and 

remedies,   279. 
Esta-fi-etta,    57. 
Ewes,    broken-mouthed,    172. 
Eye  teeth  of  horse,  283. 

Farcy  (see  glanders),  316. 

Fenced    enclosures    for    raising 
sheep,   160. 

Fire  weed,   236. 

Flies,    protecting    horses    from, 
325. 

Foot  rot,  among  sheep,   304. 

Forest   Rangers,    213. 

Forest  Service,  example  of  sys- 
tem, 234. 
success    of,    233. 
vs.   sheep  men,   215. 

Fort  Collins  lamb  feeding,  36. 

Fowler's  solution,   use  of,  275. 

Foxtail  grass,   72,   246,   272. 

Galleta   grass,    43,    49. 
Galloway   cattle,   96. 
Geranium,    wild,    264. 
Glanders  in  horses,   316. 
Goats,   79. 

Angoras,   108,  161. 

Angoras,  handling  of,  161. 

Angoras,  kids  very  tender, 
161. 

Angoras,     shearing     average, 

Angoras,  shipment  from 
South  Africa  prohibited, 
109. 

Angoras,  shipment  from  Tur- 
key prohibited,  109. 

C9mmon  breed  best,  163. 

dipping,    163. 

Mexican,    107. 

shearing,   163. 

trained  to  load  sheep,  156. 
Government   control   of   grazing 
lands,    29,   233. 

ranges,  destruction  of,  233. 

rules  for  handling  stock,   173 
Grama  grass,   43,   49. 
Grease  wood,  57. 
Grass,  burning  of,   226. 
Grasses,  destruction  of,  236. 

of  the  southern  range,  38. 
Grazing  lands,  railroad,  202. 
Grazing  on  public  lands,  bill  for 

control   of,    377. 
Hair  ropes,   spinning  of,   119. 
Hampshire  sheep,    106. 
Hay,   black  grama,  50. 

fed   cattle,   138. 

hoe-cut,   50. 

rule    for    measuring,    138. 
Heel  flies,  323. 
Hemlock   poisoning,    250. 


INDEX 


387 


Herders,    monthly    cost    of    pro- 
visions,  205. 
Herds,   size  of,   126. 
Hereford  cattle,   93. 
Higher     ranges    of    the     south- 
west,  43. 
Hitches,    packing-,    368. 

the  Basco,  370. 

Hobbled     horses,     how     to     ap- 
proach, 124. 
Hobbles,   how  made,   363. 

use  of,  362. 

Hogs,    branding   and   ear   mark- 
ing, 112. 

objection  to  on  ranges,  112. 

on  the   ranges,   111. 
Hollow   horn,    284. 
Hopples    (see   hobbles),   362. 
Horn    flies,    history   of,    320. 
Horns,   buttons  on,   167. 

of  cattle,  telling  age  by,   167. 

rings  upon,   167. 
Horse,   cups  in   teeth,   169. 

determining  age  of,   169. 
Horses,   diseases   of,   310. 

hard  on  ranges,   77. 
Hutchinson,  Kansas,  85. 

Indian   reservations,   charge  for 

stock   upon,    200,    221. 
Indians  skinning  cattle,   123. 
Insect  pests,   320. 
Iodide  of  potassium,  use  of,  287. 

Jack    rabbits    devoured    by    coy- 
otes, .329. 
Johnson  grass,   65. 

Kafir  corn  poisoning,  danger  of, 

280. 

Kansas,  prairie  dogs  in,  343- 
Kemp,  description  of,   110. 
Kentucky  blue   grass,    70. 
Kyaks,   370,   374. 

Lamb   crop,   average   of,    144. 
Lamb  feeding,  141. 
Lambing,  critical  period,  154. 

grounds,  73,  150,  225. 

in  tents,  153. 

time   of,    149. 
Lambs,  care  of,  151. 

castrating,  151. 

docking,    151. 

increase  of,  205. 

marking,   151. 

prices  paid  for,   142. 

weight  of,  154. 
Lampass,  cure  for,  283. 
Lands,  exchanging  use  of,  223. 
Lard,  use  of,  249,  278,  279. 
Large  cattle  outfits,   114. 
Larkspur,  248. 

eradification   of,   265. 

losses  from,  264. 

purple,  264. 

symptoms   and    remedies,    276. 


Larkspur,  tall,  264. 
Lash  rope,  length  of,  374. 
Leasing  of  grazing  lands,  143. 
Lime  and   sulphur  dip,   307. 
Linseed  oil,  use  of,  312. 
Lip    and    leg    ulceration,    symp- 
toms and  remedies,  308. 
Livestock,    diseases   of,   282. 

number  of,  91. 
Loading  stock  on  cars,   135. 
Lobelia,     sometimes    taken     for 

camas,  266. 

Loco,     area    covered    by    plant, 
256. 

remedies,    250,    263,    275. 

silvery,    265. 

symptoms,    260. 

years,    258. 

Locoed  animals  easily  drowned, 
262. 

horses,   peculiarities   of,   262. 

mule,  story  of,  261. 
Long  horn  cattle^  92. 
Lupine  causes  bloat,  252. 

dry   seeds   of  deadly,    266. 

elimination   of,   266. 

hay,    266. 

identification   of,    265. 

poisoning,        symptoms        and 

remedies,    277. 

Lump  jaw   (see  big  jaw),   286. 
Lynxes,    330. 

Mallein    test    for    glanders,    319. 
Mallow,   red  false,  264. 
Magnesium     sulphate,     use     of, 

275. 
Mange   among   horses,   303. 

in  cattle,   298. 

Manti    National    Forest,    210. 
Marking   lambs,    151. 

stock  by  tattoo  process,  182. 
Marsh,  Prof.  C.  D.,  263,   275,  276. 
Matador  Cattle  Co.,    114. 
Maximum    limits,     meaning    of, 

217. 
Meadows,    damage   of,   230. 

hay,    244. 

reseeding   of,    242. 
Merino      foundation      desirable, 

106. 

Merino    sheep,    104,    106. 
Mesquite   beans,    38. 
Mexican    sheep   herders,    203. 
Milling  of  cattle,   132. 
Mistletoe,  feeding  of,   58. 
Mohair,  length  of,   110. 

value  of,  110. 

Conk's   hood    (see  aconite),  268. 
Montana  cost  of  grazing  sheep, 
200. 

herders    required,    204. 
Mormons,    87,    92. 

coming  of,  84. 

expedition,   22. 
Morphine,    use   of,    278,    313. 


388 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


Motherless    calves,    88. 
Mountain   bunch  grass,   70. 

forage,    61. 

lion,   best  bait  for,    339. 

lions,  hard  to  trap,  331. 

mahogany,    43,    61,    65. 

meadows,    70. 

parks,    66. 
Moving     ewes     and     lambs     to 

mountains,    154. 

Mules,    killing   young   stock,   78. 
Mustangs,    98,    99. 
Mutton   eating   in   America,    106. 

sheep,    hard   to   herd,    106. 

type  of  sheep,  106. 

National      Forests,      cattle      vs. 
sheep,    215. 

competitive    bids    for    use    of, 
221. 

exchange   of  land,   223. 

fencing   privileges,    219. 

free  grazing  on,   211. 

grazing    fees    low,    220. 

grazing  fees   on,    200. 

Government      not     forced     to 
fence,   219. 

improvement    of    ranges,    212. 

lambs  grazed  free,  225. 

livestock   upon,    208. 

number  of  stock  upon,   224. 

permits    for    more    than    one 
year,    219. 

permit  system  on,  216. 

policy   liberal,    211. 

private  lands   in.   223. 

protective        and        maximum 
limits,    217. 

purchase  of  stock  using,   218. 

ranges,     comparison    of    fees, 
221. 

reductions  in  numbers,   217. 

stock    losses   in,    224. 

stock     permits     not     salable, 
218. 

use   of  by   stockmen,    209. 

value  of  permits,   218. 
Navajo   blankets,   102. 

Indians  as  sheep  owners,   103. 
Needle    grass,    43,    246. 
Neighbors    not    desired,    82. 
Nesters,  the,  87. 

New    Mexico,     cost     of    grazing 
sheep,    200. 

introduction     of     sheep     into, 
103. 

loco    in,    260. 

pastures,   charges  for,    199. 

sheep  herders  required,  204. 
Night   herding,   131. 

of   sheep,    152. 
North   Park,    Colorado,    66. 
Northern   range,   33,   64. 

Oak      poisoning,      stock      losses 
from,   268. 


Oak    poisoning,    symptoms    and 

remedies,    269.   278. 
Ohio,  cost  of  raising  sheep,  206. 
Oil,   linseed,   use  of,   279. 
Orchard  grass,  242,   265. 
Oregon   wind,   368. 
Overgrazing,    244. 
Overstocking,       damage       from, 

231. 

Pack  pockets,  370,  374. 
Pack   saddles,   365. 

saw  buck  type,  366. 
Packing,   365. 
Pacing    horses,    peculiarities   of, 

350. 

Panhandle    of    Texas,    89. 
Parsnip,   wild    (see   water   hem- 
lock),  267. 
Paunching,    254,    274. 

how   accomplished,    255. 
Pea   vine    (see   lupine),    265. 
Per    capita    system    of    grazing, 

216. 
Permanganate     of    potash,     use 

of,    250,    269,    277,    279. 
Permit      system      on      National 

Forests,    216. 
Pike,    Captain,    97. 
Pingue   plant,    losses   from,    269. 
poisoning,        symptoms        and 

remedies,    280. 
Poisoning     predatory     animals, 

335. 
Poisonous    plants,    choking   out, 

242. 

do  animals  know  them,  246. 
losses    from,    246. 
injurious    to    sheep,    247. 
symptoms   and    remedies,    249, 

274. 

Polled   Angus   cattle,    95. 
Porcupine  grass.   43,   246. 
Poverty   grass,   72. 
Prairie   dog   grass,    343. 
Prairie    dogs    and    rattlesnakes, 

340. 

damage  to  range  from,   339. 
digging    to    water,    340. 
grass    destroyed    by,    343. 
poison,   how  placed,   346. 
preparing  poison  for,  344. 
Prairie  June   grass,    64. 
Predatory    animals,    224. 

losses    from,    327. 
Prickly    pear,    feeding   of,    57. 

spineless  variety,    58. 
Private   lands   in   National   For- 
ests,   223. 

Protective"  limits,    217. 
Prussic   acid    in    kaflr   corn   and 

sorghum,    280. 
Public    ranges,    bill    for    control 

of,   377. 
Pueblo   Indians,    102. 


INDEX 


389 


Quick  sand,  123. 
Quinine  bush,    61. 
Quirts,    119,    361. 

Rambouillet    sheep,    106. 
Rams    (see   bucks),   155. 
Range,      conditions      past      and 
present,    116 

horses,    97. 

methods,    124. 

wars,    27. 
Ranges,    carrying   capacity,   232. 

close    grazing   of,    236. 

rotation   system,    238. 
Rattlesnakes      in      prairie     dog 

holes,    340. 

Reclamation  service,  210. 
T?ed   desert,   the,    61,    143. 
Red-top   grass,   242. 
Reseeding,  harrowing  land,  243. 

ranges,    238. 

use    of   sheep    in,    243. 
Restoring     original     conditions, 

235. 

Riatas,   119. 
Roosevelt   dam,    210. 
Rope,   how  to   use,   360. 

on  saddle,   360. 

tied   to   horn,   361. 
Rotation  system,   238. 
Round-up   herds,    size   of,    126. 

outfit,   work   of,   124. 
Rubber    weed,    269. 
Running  irons,   198. 
Russian   thistle,    63. 
Rye   grass,    242. 

wild,  270. 

Sacaton,    54. 

Saddle  blankets,  359. 

horse,  gaiting,  350. 

horses,   gaits   of,    349. 

history  of  American,   354. 

how   to   mount,    351. 

selection    of,    350. 

sore  backed,  360. 

tricks  in  riding,  353. 
Saddles,  double  rigged,   356. 

McClellan,    355. 

pack,    365. 

Texas,   356. 

types    of,    348,    355. 
Sages,    57. 
Salt  and  sulphur  for  stock,  174. 

danger  of  using,  175. 

hungry  stock,   177. 

kind   to   use,    174. 

lakes,    175. 

licks,   174. 

lick,    making   of,    176. 

petre,   drench,   315. 

petre,   use  of,   28. 

rock,     making    sore    tongues, 

rock   vs.    fine,   175. 
sage,  57,  63. 


Salting  stock,   174,    178. 
Sample  attack,   28. 
Santa    Fe,     railroad,    old    trails 
along,    229. 

trail,    230. 

San  Joaquin  Plains,   72. 
Scabies,  dipping  cattle  for,   300. 

in  cattle,  298. 

spraying    cattle    for,    301. 
Scents,    how    made,    337. 
Screw  worms,  danger  from,  321. 

flies,    321. 
Scrub    oak,    268. 

injurious    to    cattle,    61. 

stock   losses   from,    268. 
Seeds,    how   to   test,   244. 
Service  berry,   65. 
Settlers,    majority    cattle    rais- 
ers,   216. 

second     attack     on     arid     re- 
gion,   85. 

Sex,  keeping  track  of  in  brand- 
ing,   184. 

Shad   scale,   57,   63. 
Shearing,     blankets     for     sheep 
after,   147. 

time    of,    147. 

Sheep,        average       weight       of 
fleece,   205. 

bedding    down    at    night,    158. 

coarse  wooled,   106. 

cost  of  raising,   203,   205. 

cost    of    running,    206. 

deterioration    of,    201. 

determining  age  of,   172. 

dipping,    cost    of,    307. 

dips,        for        killing       screw 
worms,    322. 

diseases    of,    304. 

double   profit   from,    144. 

first    in   United    States,    100. 

goats   used   in   loading,    156. 

grazing,    value    of,    214. 

herders,    average    number    of 
sheep  to  each,  205. 

herders,   wages  paid,   204. 

herder,   work  of,   150. 

increased   cost   of   production, 
143. 

in  fenced  enclosures,   160. 

loading    in    cars,    156. 

loss  from  bloat,   253. 

maintenance  cost,   206. 

men,    advent   of    26. 

men,    find    fault,    211. 

on   range,   handling  of,   140. 

open   wooled,    107,    140. 

percentage    of    increase,    144, 
211. 

ranch,    investment   for,   202. 

report  of  Tariff  Board,   203. 

scab   among,    304. 

scab,    dipping    for,    306. 

scab,   doctoring   for,    306. 

scab,    in   Bible,    305. 

scab,   remedies,    306. 


390 


WESTERN  GRAZING  GROUNDS  AND  FOREST  RANGES 


Sheep    scab,     work    of    Govern- 
ment  in   controlling,   306. 

shearing    by    hand,    143. 

shearing   by   machine,    143. 

size  of  bands,  156,   157. 

teeth   of,  172. 

value  per  head,    205. 

versus  cattle,  215. 

water   for,    154. 
Shin  oak,  268. 
Shinneries,    268. 
Shipping  sheep,  156. 

stock,   136. 

Short-horns  on  the  range,  91. 
Shropshire   sheep,   106. 
Sleepy    grass,     peculiarities    of, 

Small     stock     owners,     position 

of,   234. 
Snake      bites,      symptoms      and 

remedies,    315. 
Snake  weed,   236. 
Sneeze       weed,       injurious       to 

sheep,    271. 
poisoning,        symptoms        and 

remedies,    279. 
water  poisoned  by,  271. 
Silver    City,    New    Mexico,    good 

goat  region,  109. 
Single-wintered   steers,    33. 
Sorghum,    65. 

poisoning,  danger  of,  280. 
Southern   lamb   trade,    36. 
range,    33. 
steer  trade,   33. 
South   Park,    Colorado,    66. 
Southwestern  grasses,   49. 
Spade   bits,    119,    358. 
Spanish  bayonet,   39,   49. 

ring  bit,  358. 
Spring  ranges,  72. 
Spurs   and   quirts,    361. 
Squeeze    chutes,    130. 
Squirrel   tail   grass,    272.  , 

Staked    plains,    origin    of    name, 

49. 

Stampedes,   132. 
State  lands,   use  of,   222,   223. 
Stock   cars,    number   of   animals 

to  a  load,   136. 
Stock,    driveways,   213. 

Government     rules     for     han- 
dling,   173. 

medicines,   how  given,   284. 
number    of   National    Forests, 

224. 
ranges,     Government     control 

of,  233. 

Stocking    the   ranges,    82. 
Strawberry  Valley  Project,   202, 

222. 

Strychnine,  use  of,  250,  275,   338. 
Success    of   the   settlers,    86. 
Sulphur    for    stock,    174. 
Supra-orbits    in    horses,    169. 
Swamp   camas,   267. 


Sweet    sage,    57. 

Teeth,   telling  age   of  stock  by, 

164. 

Tennessee  Pass  of  Colorado,  66. 
Texas  fever,   history  of,   294. 

losses    from,    296. 

pastures,   charges   for,   200. 

quarantine    against,    297. 

tick,    how    to    recognize,    298. 

ticks,  life  history  of,   297. 
Ticks,    Texas   fever,    294. 
Timothy,    61,    242. 
Tonto   Basin   War     27. 
Trails,    cattle   and   sheep,   228. 
Tramp   stockmen,    214. 
Traps,  steel,  how  to  set,  336. 
Trocar,   use  of,   255. 
Trapping      predatory      animals, 

Tumble    weed,    63. 
Turpentine,    use   in   colic,   313. 
Twins  among  stock,   147. 
Two  years  before  the  mast,  22. 
Utah   state   lands,   222. 

Veterinary    surgeon,    should    be 
called,    282. 

Warble   flies,    323. 
Warbles,    in    cattle,    324. 

life  history  of,   324. 

losses  to  stockmen  from,  325. 
Washington,    average    shearing 

of  sheep,   206. 
Water,  for  stock,  79. 

hemlock,    description    of,    267. 

hemlock,      poisoning,      symp- 
toms  and   remedies,    277. 

sheep  need  little,   154. 
Weeds    eaten   by   sheep,    80. 
Western   wheat   grass,    65. 
Wheat  grass,   64    70. 
White   bunch   grass,    61. 
White  clover,  70. 
Wild   cats,  losses  from,   330 

oats,    61. 

pea   (see  lupine),   265. 

rye,    61. 

Wind   colic,   312. 
Winter  fat,   57. 
Wolfbane    (see   aconite).   268. 
Wolfers,   employment  of,    332. 
Wolf   tail,   284. 
Wolves,    characteristics    of,    330 

losses    from,    327. 

poisoning  of    333. 

size  of  litter,  334. 
Wooden    tongue,    286. 
Wool,   advance   in   prices,    142. 

average    weight    of    clip,    148, 

cost  of  production,  206. 
Wrong  use  of  names,  99. 

Yucca,  43. 

Zuni,   pueblo  of,  100. 


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FED  12  1970 


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